RECONSTRUCTION

I. Reconstruction: Meaning and Problems

RECONSTRUCTION

#1 - 1982

• Compare the goals and strategies of Black reform movements in the period 1890-1910 to the goals and strategies of Black reform movements in the period 1950-1970.

#2

• Assess the impact of THREE of the following on the status of African Americans from the end of Reconstruction to 1900.

The Fourteenth Amendment

"Black Codes"

Plessy v. Ferguson

#3 - 1992

• Discuss the political, economic, and social reforms introduced in the South between 1864 and 1877. To what extent did these reforms survive the Compromise of 1877?

#4 - 1996 - DBQ

A. Reconstruction

refers to the years from 1865 to 1877 when the American people reestablished the Southern states as a part of the Union. This resulted in social, economic, and political changes in both the North and South. Problems with a Civil War?

Inquiry - What issues must be resolved?

B. Political Problems

• 1. What branch of the federal government should determine the conditions for the return of
• Southern States?
• a. Executive - pardon power (Article II, Sec. 2)
• b. Legislative - admit states (Article IV, Sec. 4)
• 2. What conditions should be placed on the Southern States before permitting them to return to the
• Union?
• 3. What political rights should be granted to the Blacks and how should these rights be enforced?
• 4. How to prevent a return of Southern political opposition to Northern economic goals?
• a. Southern civil government destroyed
• b. Law and Order destroyed - roving bands

C. Economic Conditions

• 1. War Cost $10+ billion - (when interest, pensions, damages added, cost more like $20 billion)
• a. The South was in ruin many of its cities had been destroyed and its economy was barely
• functioning. (Sherman's March)
• b. Transportation and educational systems were destroyed and
• slavery was abolished destroying the labor supply ($2 billion loss).
• c. No investment capital was available to rebuild
• d. Banking and currency destroyed
• e. Cotton seized
• f. Crop acreage substantially reduced.
• g. Inflation high
• h. Who should pay to rebuild?
• 2. Poverty and homelessness
• a. Slaves
• 1. They owned no land, never used money
• 2. talk of "40 acres and a mule"
• 3. Should there be compensation?
• 4. Job discrimination
• b. Poor whites - should they also receive help
• 3. Southern economic backwardness.
• a. Dependence upon outside even during ante-bellum prosperity
• b. Greatly increased by war
• c. Never really recovered
• 4. Southern debts - Should they be repaid?

D. Social Conditions

• 1. Slaves (3.5 million) could not read and write
• a. faced discrimination - racism - hatred produced fear
• b. did not fit in - faced violence and death
• c. Should the military be used to protect them?
• 2. Casualties 600,000 (31 million - population)
• a. Union - 364,000
• b. Confederacy - 258,000
• c. Wounded - 1 million combined
• d. Disease killed 1/4 to 1/3 of city population
• e. 100,000 freed slaves died in camps in 1865
• 3. Cultural life would not recover for a generation
• a. schools, churches destroyed or impoverished
• b. social order in turmoil
• 1. Planter aristocracy
• 2. social ladder?
• 4. Psychological scars.
• a. Bitterness, deep-seated hatreds
• b. Race
• 1. "An American dilemma."
• 2. Insoluble?
• 5. How to rekindle nationalism (sectionalism did not go away)

II. Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction 1863-1865

A. 1865 - "With malice toward none, with charity for all" Union preserved

• 1. Second Inaugural Address (March 4, 1865)
• a. War ended in April
• b. Moderate and merciful tone

B. Basis: Confederate states had never left the Union

(Rebellion of Individuals)

C. Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction - 12/63 - Moderate

• 1. Pardon most southerners (general amnesty)
• a. Excluded high Southern Confederate leaders
• b. new leaders not as well educated
• Their actions were based on racial hatred
• c. Confederate leaders not harshly treated.
• 2. Reconstruction would restore civil governments in defeated areas
• a. 10% plan - This oath would include the abolition of slavery
• (13th Amendment - 1865)
• Passed by Congress February 1, 1865
• Ratified December 18, 1865
• Outlawed slavery and involuntary servitude
• Permitted enabling legislation
• 1. When 10% of the voters in a state took this oath, they could form a legal state
• government - (10% based on number of voters in 1860)
• 2. The new state governments could then submit a new state Constitution to
• Congress and return to normal
• b. Hinted that he favored giving "well-qualified" blacks the right to vote
• 3. Provided no military government to ensure obedience
• 4. Arkansas, Tennessee and Louisiana met these conditions in 1864
• Congress refused to seat them because
• they showed little willingness to change previous attitudes
• 6. Goal - shorten the war and aid emancipation
• 7. Political reconstruction only
• a. expected the South to rejoin the Union and participate in the restoration of nationalism
• b. intended to allow the South to participate in designing economic and social
• reconstruction
• 8. Congress must give final approval - they opposed
• 9. Lincoln showed some willingness to compromise - become stricter

III. Early Opposition - Radical Republicans - 1863-1865

A. Leaders - Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens

• 1. Sumner was caned by Preston Brooks in 1856 - it took him 3 years to recover
• 2. Stevens (1792-1868) supported confiscation of property and redistribution to blacks
• Pennsylvania Congressman
• "Forty acres and a mule" - very little redistribution actually occurred

B. Goals

• 1. educate blacks for equality - political, economic, social
• 2. punish the south for discrimination - military rule to enforce laws
• 3. land redistribution
• 4. keep Republican control of Congress

C. Congress refused to seat new Southern delegates to Congress because

• 1. they did not guarantee black suffrage or land redistribution
• 2. they did not trust Southern leaders to change
• in the states that met the requirements blacks were not treated well
• 3. even Moderates thought that the President had exceeded his authority
• a. State Suicide - start over as unorganized territory - (Sumner) Congress readmits
• b. Conquered Provinces - Stevens - do what we want - deter future challenge
• 4. It endangered Republican control of Congress
• a. tariffs
• b. land
• c. banks
• d. railroads
• 5. Two ways to keep control
• a. give slaves vote - Republican
• b. keep Confederate leaders out of office

D. Wade-Davis Bill - July 1864

• 1. Goals - South = conquered territory
• a. punish South - harsh
• b. give leadership to loyal Republicans (governor appointed not elected)
• c. insure black rights (state constitution required to abolish slavery)
• 2. Cancel Confederate debt - weaken former leadership
• 3. 50% should take oath of loyalty
• 4. Only those who never willingly supported the Confederacy could vote in the election
• or write the Constitution
• 5. Gave the federal courts the power to enforce emancipation
• 6. Lincoln's Response
• a. Lincoln used the pocket veto
• but showed a willingness to compromise in the other 9 states
• b. felt that a Constitutional Amendment was required to abolish slavery
• c. 12/65 - 13th Amendment
• 7. Battle over reconstruction began in the North
• 8. Southern states thus reorganized by President under plan rejected by Congress.

E. Lincoln's Assassination - April 14, 1865

• 1. Ford's Theater - D.C.
• 2. Our American Cousin - comedy
• 3. John Wilkes Booth (1838-65) - A pro-Confederate actor
• a. Many Southern sympathizers saw Lincoln as a tyrant and
• Booth thought that he was saving the South.
• b. Instead Lincoln's death gave the Radical Republican control of Reconstruction
• which ended up much harsher than Lincoln had envisioned.
• c. Booth was shot and killed two weeks later.

IV. Andrew Johnson vs. Radical Republicans

A. Andrew Johnson (1808 - 1875) - Personality

• 1. Johnson became Vice-President in 1864
• Jacksonian Democrat from Tennessee
• Strong champion of small farmers and artisans
• Headed loyalist Tennessee government during Civil War
• Refused to give up seat in Congress when South seceded
• Selected as Lincoln's Vice President to balance ticket.
• 2. Johnson loved the South
• but hated southern plantation owners who he blamed for his hard life as a poor southerner.
• This led Congress to believe they could work with him
• 3. As a politician many Southerners had looked down on him because of his birth.
• 4. Obnoxious, rude - no tact - Inflexible - unwilling to compromise - owned slaves
• 5. self-righteous - his was only acceptable plan - no Lincoln
• 6. unofficially he recommended giving suffrage to those blacks who could read and write
• Southerners ignored this advise
• Northerners were upset that his reasons were political he wanted the Republicans to lose support
• 7. Lacked skill and ability to deal politically on presidential level

B. Modified Lincoln Plan

• 1. Johnson agreed with Lincoln that the South had not seceded
• and that the President should Reconstruct the South based on his power to pardon
• there was a several month interval between Lincoln's assassination
• and the reconvening of Congress.
• 2. He did believe in the use of military rule in the South to break the plantation system
• which Lincoln had not supported.
• His goal was to destroy the planters not aid blacks.
• 3. Amnesty Proclamation (May, 1865).
• He also required that all the wealthy ($20,000) be excluded from participation
• whether they qualified or not
• To be eligible to participate they must ask him for a pardon.
• Which they did (13,000)
• they then won seats in the Congress infuriating Northerners
• 4. Traditional political patterns thus were resurrected
• 5. Johnson also favored the repudiation of the Confederate debt - (Lincoln did not)
• 6. Johnson adopted all of the Wade-Davis Bill except that the 50% had to be white
• 7. by the end of 1865 every state except Texas had done this

C. Restrictions on blacks under Johnson - 2nd class citizens

• Johnson began Reconstruction while Congress was out of session
• The South went along with this very slowly - resisting in many ways
• a. Johnson believed that the states should make most of their own laws - States' Rights
• 1. some refused to take oath - not ashamed
• 2. some refused to ratify 13th amendment
• 3. some refused to repudiate the debt
• b. Southern states elected ex-confederate leaders to Congress
• Johnson opposed black equality and did not seem bothered by Southern obstruction
• a. refused to give blacks the right to vote even if they were educated
• or had served in the military
• b. blocked government aid to help the freed slaves
• Freedman's Bureau - passed over veto - 1865
• 1. 1st government support of the needy - relief for blacks and whites
• 2. raised false hope - 40 acres and a mule
• controlled 100,000's acres of land
• 3. encouraged racial friction
• 4. provided education to poor blacks and whites
• 5. resented by the South
• Black Codes (1865-66)
• were passed by Southern states to keep ex-slaves in a position of political, social, and economic inferiority.
• a. blacks could not hold skilled jobs without a permit
• (or even choose jobs) they were basically limited to farming
• yet land ownership was limited
• b. unemployed blacks could be arrested, fined
• and hired out to white employers to pay the fine
• c. separate legal systems were created - blacks not allowed to testify or sit on a jury
• d. forbidden to assemble or travel without white permits
• e. forbidden to hold office or vote in some states
• f. could not bear arms
• g. Voting rights denied blacks.
• Some blacks' rights acknowledged
• 1) Legal and property rights
• 2) Marriage, though not interracial marriage.
• Riots broke out in the South
• a. many killed
• b. one killed in Texas for refusing to tip his hat
• Johnson's failure to support government aid to protect the blacks led to further problems with
• Congress
• Vetoed acts proposing statehood for Colorado and Nebraska.
• Vetoed bill to extend suffrage to District of Columbia blacks.

V. Radical Reconstruction - Dec 1865 - 1870

A. Goals

• 1. Refused to seat Southern members in Congress including
• Confederate generals
• Congressmen
• and the VP
• 2. Set further conditions to be met before Reconstruction over - Forfeited Rights Theory
• 3. Moderate Republicans who controlled Congress in 12/65
• became more radical despite their own hesitation to give blacks too many rights
• 4. Named Joint Congressional Committee on Reconstruction.
• a. Held public hearings revealing unsavory conditions in the South.
• b. Sentiment grew for redress of Freedmen's grievances.

B. Civil Rights Act of 1866 (3/66)

• 1. Passed to weaken black codes over Johnson's veto
• 2. Gave blacks equal rights to whites - difficult to enforce - immigrants had to wait 5 yrs.
• 3. Citizenship given by national govt. instead of states
• 4. 1st major piece of legislation to be passed over the veto of a president.
• Included provision for military enforcement if necessary
• Outlawed discriminatory legislation.
• 5. Congress then followed it up with the 14th Amendment
• because they were afraid that it would be declared unconstitutional

C. Freedman's Bureau Act of 1866

• (3/65 then extended in 1866 - lasted till 1872)
• 1. Provided newly freed Negroes with food, clothing, and medical care
• 2. Provided first free education for blacks and poor whites in the South
• 3. found work for them and protected their rights
• 4. Johnson veto overridden, Lincoln had supported
• 5. attempts to make it more powerful were blocked by Johnson
• 6. These two acts in 1866 led the Moderates to break with Johnson

D. Congressional elections of 1866.

• President Johnson took stump against Fourteenth Amendment.
• Radicals rose to the challenge and won decisively.
• Controlled two-thirds of Congress.
• Controlled all Northern state governments.
• Fight inevitable.
• Radical Republicans gained firm control of Congress with Moderate Republican support

E. Fourteenth Amendment 1868

began move toward centralization of federal power

• 1. made blacks citizens - defined citizenship
• 2. guaranteed life, liberty, property - due process
• Promised equal protection
• Threatened penalties for withholding suffrage
• 3. Denied right of states to legislative discrimination
• penalty for breaking this law was a reduction in representation in Congress
• 4. Repudiated Confederate debt
• 5. Blocked Confederate officials from holding office without pardon
• 700,000 black voters vs. 625,000 white yet only controlled S.C.
• Permitted enabling legislation.
• 6. 1866 - except for Tennessee, South refused to ratify at Johnson's urging
• 7. 1866 elections Radicals took over Congress - moderates out
• Became political issue in 1866.
• Finally ratified in 1868.

F. First Reconstruction Act - (March, 1867)

• 1. Goal - supervise voter registration
• 2. Divided the South into 5 military districts
• military commanders, with broad powers, in charge of each
• using some black troops
• short period
• resentment
• Constitutional conventions mandated in each state.
• Provisions for resulting constitutions to include
• Universal male suffrage
• Popular ratification
• Approval of Congress
• Disfranchisement of many rebels
• States following procedures must also ratify Fourteenth Amendment
• Readmission to Union would follow
• Assumed that once blacks had the vote they could take care of themselves
• South refused to call the Conventions which would give this right to vote
• Radicals then called the election themselves
• however less than 50% voted thus blocking reform again
• 6. 1868 - Reconstruction Act finally passed giving blacks the right to vote
• a. Only other southerners allowed to participate - Scalawags

G. Tenure of Office Act - 1867

• 1. attempted to limit Johnson's interference of the Radical program
• 2. stated that the President could not dismiss important government officials
• without the approval of the Senate
• Presidential control over military reduced
• 3. Johnson objected that this violated Separation of Powers
• 4. Johnson tested the law - 8/67 - fired Sec. of War Edwin Stanton
• only Radical in the Cabinet
• Replaced him with U.S. grant who refused to take the position
• 2/68 - fired Stanton again - this time he refused to go
• 5. Thaddeus Stevens brought charges against
• Impeached overwhelmingly by the House - 2/68
• Without precedent in American history
• 6. Tried by the Senate - abuse of power key issue
• 7. Found not guilty by one vote - weakened the Radicals - Edmund Ross
• 8. Johnson remained President till 1869
• however he allowed Congress to run Reconstruction without further interference
• Johnson ruined politically.
• 9. Threatened system of checks and balances - Presidency could have been destroyed

H. 1868 Election

• 1. U.S. Grant (R)
• 2. Democrats chose Horatio Seymour (1810-86)
• a. New York governor
• b. Strong opposition to Radical Reconstruction
• 3. Grant's solid victory.
• a. Popular vote.
• Grant - 3,013,421
• Seymour - 2,706,829
• b. Electoral vote.
• Grant - 52.7%
• Seymour - 47.3%
• 4. supported Congressional Reconstruction plans
• 5. Waving the Bloody Shirt began in 1866 elections

I. 15th Amendment - 1869

• 1. Right to vote guaranteed - race, color, creed
• 2. Tx. last to give in

J. Force Acts - 1871-1872

• 1. Passed to protect blacks from the KKK
• 2. Placed all Southern elections under Federal control
• 3. Its failure led the North to give in

K. Amnesty Act of 1872

• 1. restored right to vote to all whites
• 2. Radicals showed signs of weakening

L. Election of 1872.

• Liberal Republican faction challenged President Grant
• scandals
• Desire for reforms, especially civil service
• Named Horace Greeley (1811-72).
• Eccentric founder of New York Trlbune
• Supported reforms
• Strong opponent of slavery and racism
• Gained Democrats' support
• Grant scored impressive victory.
• Popular vote
• Grant - 3,596,745 (55.6%)
• Greeley - 2,843,446 (43.9%)
• Electoral vote
• Grant 286
• Greeley - (died, votes divided among minor candidates)

VI. Compromise of 1877

A. Rutherford B. Hayes (R) (1822-93)

• a. Ohio political leader, Civil War general
• b. Reputation for honesty

B. Samuel.J. Tilden (D) (1814-86)

• a. New York governor
• b. Reformer, smashed Tweed Ring

C. Final Results - Tilden won...at first

• (4 million) - Hayes / (4.3 million) - Tilden
• Tilden apparent victor in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana.
• Challenged by Republicans in control of election machinery.
• Republicans claimed all 19 electoral votes of Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana.
• Would make Hayes the winner, 185-184
• Democrats claimed Tilden won, 203-165
• 3. Commission - 7 Rep. 7 Dem. 1 Ind. (resigned and replaced by Rep.)
• 4. Filibuster could have delayed - let the House decide - Tilden would have won
• 5. Republican feared Southern violence - offered a deal

D. Compromise abandoned blacks ending Reconstruction

• 1. Troops withdrawn from the South
• a. Too expensive
• b. Leading radicals died off
• c. North got Western vote - Southern blacks not needed
• d. North feared integration of their society
• e. returned to local rule
• f. Southern determination wore down the North
• 2. appointed Southerner to Cabinet
• 3. help get support for a Southern transcontinental rr
• 4. Southern Democrats supported Hayes for Presidency
• 5. Hayes became President - Reconstruction over

VII. Political Results

A. Supremacy of the Federal Government established

• 1. Secession and nullification abandoned as legitimate theories
• 2. States still maintained the ability to resist

B. Dominance of Legislative Branch and Republicans nationally

• 1. Judicial branch stayed out of the battle
• 2. Series of weak Presidents followed Lincoln
• 3. Waving the Bloody Shirt

C. Liberal State Constitutions set goals - improvement of democracy

• 1. Universal Manhood Suffrage was tried briefly
• a. reapportioned votes to provide more equal distribution
• b. more democratic
• c. some recognition of women's rights
• d. made many appointive jobs elected
• 2. 15th Amendment should have been stronger to continue this idea

D. Failure to Train Blacks for Politics

• 1. National leadership lacked strong principles to guide them - Grant
• long list of ineligible Southerners created a leadership vacuum
• 2. Carpetbaggers (4 governorships, 10 Senate seats, 20 reps)
• a. Northerners who traveled to the South - usually made long term commitments to South
• b. Some came to aid the blacks
• contributed positive leadership, and even their own capital
• c. others came to make easy money
• d. graft and corruption common - as in the North - not caused by blacks
• e. heavy taxation and wild spending led to debt
• difficult to Reconstruct without Federal funds
• f. Northerners failed to set a good example
• 1. offended Southerners making cooperation more difficult to obtain
• 2. failed to properly train blacks
• 3. Scalawags
• a. Pro-Union Southerners
• b. cooperated with the Carpetbaggers
• c. desired revenge on the Plantation owners
• 4. Blacks - Discrimination
• a. now able to vote - few good choices available - ethics at a low point
• b. some elected to office - never in control - did gain experience
• c. followed examples available - blamed for all failures
• d. Those who were elected usually had been freed before the war
• and/or had received educations
• e. inefficiency and corruption blamed on blacks and Northerners
• despite the fact that it was a national phenomenon

E. Solid South - Conservative - avoid change

• a. Democratic Party Primaries allowed only whites to vote - considered it a private club
• b. South voted Democrat at the local, state and national level till 1970s
• c. Redeemers regained control - psychological victory for south
• d. Nixon won South in 1972
• e. Bill Clements won Texas - 1976
• f. Jimmy Carter 1st deep South President since Civil War
• g. single party with only one choice - a white man
• h. South regained control

F. Disenfranchisement (700,000 out of 4 million voted in 1868)

• 1. Southern Counterattack
• Moderate middle-class cooperation with Radical governments ended
• Violent opposition of poor whites
• Economic and social threat
• Race
• 2. KKK - violence and repression (1866 - Nathan Forrest in Puaski, Tenn.)
• a. 559,000 members by 1868
• Sheet-clad night riders (Confederate ghosts)
• Cross-burnings
• Beatings, Iynchings, murder, and brutality.
• b. 1865-1866 - thousands of blacks murdered - few trials
• c. military rule was used to stop this
• Force Act (1870)
• KKK Act (1871)
• d. New State governments - 1868 used systematic terrorism to keep blacks from the polls
• e. Vote Democrat or don't vote - 1868 - 1872
• f. 1868 - thousands murdered including Congressmen
• g. White Supremacy established in most states by 1870
• h. 1870-1872 Army restored peace, but North got tired
• i. 1874 - last time troops used
• 1. White League - paramilitary - tried to take over La.
• 2. Northerners lost idealism
• j. Between 1889-1899 189/year lynched and 25% of those sent to black work camps died
• 2. Poll Tax - 1877 - keep the poor from voting
• 3. 8 box law - 1882
• a. aimed at illiterates who found it difficult to tell which ballot went in which box
• 4. Literacy Test - 1890
• a. Read and interpret the Constitution
• b. White registration officials determined qualifications
• 5. Grandfather Clause - 1898
• a. Exemption from literacy test
• b. Relative must have voted in an election prior to 1867
• 6. Property requirements
• 7. Result - few blacks could vote
• a. La. 1896 - 130,334 black voters
• b. La. 1904 - 1342 black voters
• c. Supreme Ct. upheld these laws - Williams v. Miss.

G. Federal Government took an active role

in trying to solve social, economic, and political problems

H. Did Reconstruction succeed?

VII. Social Results

A. Slavery ended forever - provided hope for the future

• 1. 13th Amendment
• 2. 14th Amendment
• a. Due Process
• b. Equal Protection

B. Free Public Education

• 1. low taxes provided poor education
• 2. still better than none - hope for the future
• 3. 4,000 schools
• 4. 600,000 blacks attending elementary school by 1877

C. Bitterness between North and South / Black and White remained

• 1. Whites refused to cooperate - how do you force people to like each other?
• 2. North eventually gave up - driven out by the hatred

D. Black Codes designed to keep blacks as second class citizens

• 1. temporary till better system developed
• 2. north eliminated most of these codes
• 3. KKK terrorism kept blacks in line
• a. 550,000 members in 1868

E. Jim Crow Laws 1865+

• 1. de jure segregation laws that forced the blacks into separate public facilities
• a. schools - supported by blacks
• b. Churches - supported by blacks
• c. restaurants, hotels, rr, etc.
• 2. Plessy V. Ferguson - 1896
• a. 1890 Louisiana law segregating RR
• b. Plessy 1/8 black looked white - lost case - sued La. judge - Ferguson
• 3. Separate but Equal Doctrine upheld 7-1 (the one was a former slaveowner)

F. Immigration led to population boom

G. Were Black rights protected?

VIII. Economic Results

Goal - rebuild the south to reduce economic sectionalism and give blacks economic

opportunity

A. Physical Devastation left South poor

• 1. public works programs did rebuild infrastructure
• Railroad system
• Cities
• Improved tax system
• Expanded social services.

B. New South

• 1. Cotton still #1 - slowed by the breakup of the plantations
• 2. Diversified Agriculture - no longer dependent on one crop yet still cash crop oriented
• 3. Development of Industry (4x)
• 4. Taxes and debts increased to pay for changes

C. New Labor Systems in the South

• 1. Contract Labor System - 1866
• a. Fixed wages - some withheld till harvest
• b. often cheated - watched by Freedman's Bureau
• c. Freedman's Bureau often recruited workers to keep them in line - low wages
• d. Freedman's Bureau out of business by 1869
• e. "gang labor" = slave labor
• 2. Sharecropper System - 1870+
• a. Fixed share of crop - usually 1/2
• b. lived on credit from planter/merchants at high prices - 60% interest
• c. often no net profit therefore required to work off debt
• d. Crop lien system - to collect debt
• debtors took possession of crop and sold it at whatever price they could get
• led to Populists
• e. By 1900 - 47% of all southern farmers and 74% of all black farmers

D. U.S. entered the age of big business - Industrial Revolution

• 1. Supremacy of Industry over agriculture as America's main economic enterprise
• 2. Population of West increases - development began
• 3. Expanded the role of the Federal Government in the economy
• a. National Banks
• b. Morrill Tariff
• c. Income Tax (1861-1872)
• d. National Banking system
• 1. uniform currency
• 2. first paper money - "Greenbacks"
• e. Transcontinental Railroad
• f. Homestead Act
• g. Morrill Land Grant Act
• 4. Cheap labor - immigration, blacks, defeated Confederates
• 5. North - millionaire class - war profits provided capital to speed up revolution
• 6. Programs that the South had block for years became unopposed reality for years

E. Did Reconstruction succeed?

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