Beginning at about 8 weeks after conception, and throughout the remainder of the prenatal period, a developing human is called a/an ______.      
 embryo      
 * fetus      
 infant      
 blastula      
    

Newborns weighing less than 4 pounds at birth have a high risk for each of the following EXCEPT       
 dying in infancy.      
 eventual mental retardation.      
 * blindness.      
 low academic achievement later in life.      
    

In pairs of twins where one baby was born much heavier than the other, which baby is at greater risk for developmental problems, such as mental retardation?      
 the lighter baby      
 the heavier baby      
 Both babies are a great risk, regardless of diet and medical care.     
 * Neither baby is at unusually great risk, as long as they both receive adequate care.     
    

A small head, malformed face, heart, and ears, seizures, hyperactivity, and learning disabilities are all associated with       
 * fetal alcohol syndrome.      
 Parkinson's disease.      
 offspring of teenaged pregnancies.      
 prenatal exposure to caffeine.      
    

Which movements are newborn infants BEST able to control?        
 finger movements      
 * mouth movements      
 foot movements      
 leg movements      
    

Why is it difficult to test the sensory and learning abilities of a newborn?       
 Legal restrictions prevent psychologists from studying children before age 1 year.     
 Infants have extremely limited sensory capacities.      
 * Infants have extremely limited control of most muscles.      
 The ability to learn does not begin to develop until age 6 months.     
    

Which of the following is LEAST well developed in newborn infants (within the first week or two)?       
 ability to see A     
 ability to hear      
 ability to learn to suck in a particular way      
 * ability to control finger movements      
    

What will an infant under 3 months of age do when he or she sees an object?       
 reach for the object      
 * direct his or her eyes toward the object      
 move toward the object      
 all of the above      
    

Two-day-old infants typically would spend the MOST time looking at a       
 solid red picture.      
 solid white picture. B     
 narrow diagonally striped pattern.      
 * drawing of a human face.      
    

A 2-day-old infant is often able to imitate        
 hand movements it sees.      
 arm movements it sees.      
 * mouth expressions it sees.      
 vowel sounds it hears.      
    

One characteristic that distinguishes the visual behavior of human infants less than 4 months old is that such infants       
 move their eyes around randomly      
 * focus on a highly attention-grabbing object, and then have trouble shifting their attention away from it.     
 focus mostly on simple displays such as an all-yellow card, rather than on more complex patterns.     
 pay more attention to diagonal lines than older children do, and less attention to horizontal and vertical lines.     
    

Compared to adults, infants under the age of 3 months are        
 more likely to reach for an object that they are viewing.      
 much less likely to look at faces or colorful objects.      
 * less likely to shift their attention away from whatever they are viewing.     
 more likely to prefer plain, solid stimuli over patterned stimuli.     
    

If children less than one year old get earlier-than-normal experience of locomotion, such as by crawling, then those children will be quicker than normal to develop signs of      
 * fear of heights.      
 conservation of mass.      
 moral reasoning.      
 language comprehension.      
    

Two kittens spend 21 hours a day in the dark. For the other 3 hours the "active" kitten can walk around and see; the "passive" kitten is carried around passively in the same environment. Good paw-eye coordination develops in     
 only the passive kitten.      
 * only the active kitten.      
 both kittens.      
 neither kitten.      
    

When an infant hears a novel sound, the infant increases its sucking rate. After several presentations of the same sound, the sucking rate shows less of a response. This decrease in responding is called ______.     
 * habituation      
 sensitization      
 reactivity      
 reflexive attenuation      
    

An infant is sucking on a nipple. Meanwhile, an investigator plays the sound "ba" repeatedly until the infant habituates to it. Then the investigator plays the sound "pa." What does the infant do, and what does that behavior indicate?     
 The infant sucks more rapidly, indicating that it prefers the sound "pa" to "ba."     
 * The infant sucks more rapidly, indicating that it can detect the difference between "pa" and "ba."     
 The infant sucks at the same rate as before, indicating that it cannot detect the difference between "pa" and "ba."     
 The infant sucks more slowly, indicating that the change of stimulus increased the rate of habituation.     
    

What evidence do we have that newborn infants can distinguish between the sounds "ba" and "pa"?       
 They make both sounds in their own babbling.      
 Their heart rate increases when they hear "pa" but not when they hear "ba."     
 * After habituating to "ba," they increase their sucking rate when they hear "pa."     
 They turn to the left when they hear "ba," and they turn to the right when they hear "pa."     
    

What evidence do we have to indicate that on-month-old infants can hear the difference between "ba" and "pa"?       
 They copy what they hear adults say, repeating "ba" when the A hear "ba" and "pa" when they hear "pa."     
 * After habituating to the sound "ba," they show increased arousal when they hear "pa."     
 They can learn to look to the left when they hear one sound and look to the right when they hear the other sound.     
 Many infants point to one person, such as a grandmother, when the hear "ba" and point to the father when they hear "pa."     
    

What evidence do we have that babies can hear, even in the first 3 days after birth?       
 They babble more loudly if they need to in order to hear themselves over the background noise.     
 * They respond differently to their own mother's voice than to that of other women.     
 They cry whenever they hear any sound, no matter how loud or soft.     
 Babies who are spoken to in the first 3 days develop language faster than other babies do.     
    

In certain studies, newborn infants (age 0-3 days) could suck on a nipple at some times to hear their own mother's voice and at other times to hear another woman's voice. What did the infants do?     
 * They sucked more when they could hear their own mother.      
 They sucked more when they could hear the other woman. B     
 They sucked vigorously but equally for either voice.      
 They rarely sucked at all.      
    

What evidence (if any) do we have that newborn infants (less than 3 days old) can recognize the sound of their own mother's voice?       
 They habituate more rapidly to the sound of their own mother's voice than to any other woman's voice.     
 They learn to kick their legs to turn on a tape recording of their own mother's voice, but not for another woman's voice.     
 * They suck more vigorously at times when sucking turns on a recording of their own mother's voice.     
 We have no evidence that newborn infants can recognize the sound of their own mother's voice.     
    

What can a newborn infant (less than 3 days old) learn to do, if anything?       
 press a button to turn the lights on or off      
 clap its hands every time it hears a familiar sound      
 * suck on a nipple that turns on a recording of its mother's voice     
 Infants younger than 3 days old show no evidence of learning.      
    

Which of the following tasks would be the MOST DIFFICULT to teach to a 2-month-old infant?       
 change its rate of sucking when rewarded by a tape recorded sound     
 kick its legs when rewarded by a moving mobile      
 move its head when rewarded by sugar water      
 * reach with its hand to grasp its favorite toy when rewarded by that toy     
    

An investigator covers a toy and watches whether a child removes the cover to retrieve the toy. The investigator is probably testing whether the child has the concept of ______.      
 conservation      
 identity achievement      
 assimilation      
 * object permanence      
    

To test whether a young child has the concept of object permanence, Piaget would watch whether the child can       
 play with a toy the same way the experimenter plays with it.      
 state that the amount of clay or water stays the same after a distortion of its shape.     
 answer abstract, hypothetical questions about the object.      
 * reach around a barrier to get an object that the child no longer sees.     
    

According to Piaget, how can we determine whether a child has the concept of object permanence?       
 Watch the child's eye movements when the object moves.      
 * Place a toy behind a barrier and see whether the child retrieves it.     
 Squash some clay or pour liquid into a different container and see whether the child thinks it still is the same amount.     
 See whether the child consistently prefers one toy over another.     
    

Object permanence refers to the idea that        
 * objects continue to exist even when we don't see them.      
 objects we see continue to exist even when we aren't talking about them.     
 objects permanently exist in one location.      
 the substance of an object remains constant even when the form of the object changes.     
    

Although a 6-month-old child will normally stop reaching out for a toy that has been covered with a box, the infant will continue to reach for the toy if the      
 infant has previously held the toy.      
 * lights are turned off and the room is dark.      
 toy is brightly colored.      
 toy is made out of candy.      
    

Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children developed when he noticed that       
 even young children could organize and sequence information. A     
 all children solve problems in the same basic fashion as adults in their culture.     
 children performed correctly on an amazing number of IQ test items, even before they acquired language.     
 * children about the same age consistently answered certain questions incorrectly, but similarly.     
    

According to Jean Piaget, how do children's thought processes differ from those of adults?       
 They are slower.      
 They are faster.      
 They are the same except that they are based on less information.     
 * They differ both in quantity and in quality.      
    

In Piaget's terminology, an organized way of interacting with objects in the world is known as       
 * a schema.      
 conservation. B     
 a moratorium.      
 a phoneme.      
    

What did Piaget mean by the term "assimilation"?        
 * applying an old schema to new objects      
 modifying an old schema to fit a new object      
 an organized way of interacting with objects in the world      
 a mental process that can be reversed      
    

According to Piaget, a child who changes a schema to fit a new object is said to ______ the schema.       
 assimilate      
 * accommodate      
 conserve      
 reverse      
    

The order of Piaget's stages of development is        
 sensorimotor -- formal operations -- concrete operations -- postoperational     
 preoperational -- concrete operations -- formal operations -- sensorimotor     
 concrete operations -- sensorimotor -- preoperational -formal operations     
 * sensorimotor -- preoperational -- concrete operations -formal operations     
    

Which is the FIRST of Piaget's stages of cognitive development -- the one characteristic of infants?       
 the preoperational stage      
 * the sensorimotor stage      
 the formal-operations stage      
 the concrete-operations stage      
    

What was Piaget's view on intellectual development occurring in stages?       
 Piaget argued AGAINST the notion that children progress through stages of intellectual development.     
 Piaget argued that all children go through four major stages, but that the order of stages varies from child to child.     
 * Piaget argued that all children go through four major stages in the same order.     
 Piaget argued that in some cultures children pass through only one stage, while in other cultures children progress through as many as 12 stages.    
    

According to Piaget, children in the ______ stage of congnitive development lack the concept of object permanence.       
 formal-operations      
 concrete-operations      
 preoperational      
 * sensorimotor      
    

Children first appear to gain some concept of "self" in Piaget's ______ stage.       
 preoperational      
 * sensorimotor      
 formal-operations      
 concrete-operations      
    

When children begin to show self-recognition they will typically also begin to show       
 amazement      
 conservation      
 * embarrassment      
 righteous indignation      
    

A little boy in the preoperational stage would have trouble understanding that       
 his father and mother still exist even when the boy does not A see them.     
 other little boys have sisters when he has only brothers.      
 some mothers are taller than some fathers.      
 * his mother is also someone's daughter.      
    

What did Piaget mean by an "operation" (as in "concrete operations")?       
 an organized way of dealing with objects in the world      
 applying a schema to a new object      
 modifying a schema to fit a new object      
 * a mental process that can be reversed      
    

Which of the following is generally true of children who are at the beginning of Piaget's preoperational stage?       
 They do not yet have language.      
 They are capable of concrete operations but not formal operations. B    
 * They have trouble distinguishing between appearance and reality.     
 They do not understand the concept of object permanence.      
    

What did Piaget mean by the term "egocentric"?        
 * seeing the world only from your own perspective      
 selfish      
 having a well-defined, individually chosen identity      
 withdrawn, shy, and inhibited      
    

Which of the following would Piaget describe as an "egocentric" thought?       
 "I can sing better than anyone else in my class."      
 * "Birds sing so that I can hear them."      
 "I want to have more candy than my friends."      
 "I think, therefore I exist."      
    

Which of the following would Piaget describe as an "egocentric" thought?       
 "Stop what you're doing and come help me!"      
 * "If I know what I'm talking about, other people will understand it too."     
 "When I grow up I want to be a famous scientist."      
 "Sometimes I have strong impulses that I know I have to suppress."     
    

According to Piaget, how could we determine whether a child's thinking is "egocentric"?       
 * Show the child a pile of objects and ask how it would look from the back.     
 Give the child a bag full of candies and ask him or her to share it with a group of friends.     
 Ask the child "What do you want to be when you grow up, and why?"     
 Tell the child not to play with his or her favorite toy, and then watch what the child does.     
    

Which of the following is the clearest example of egocentric thinking?       
 A politician blames others for everything that goes wrong.      
 A writer uses someone else's words without giving credit.      
 A landlord raises the rent even though the value of the property has decreased.     
 * A professor gives the same complicated lecture to a freshman class that she gave to a group of professionals.     
    

Children in Piaget's preoperational stage of development x        
 language.      
 schemas.      
 * the concept of conservation.      
 the concept of object permanence.      
    

According to Piaget, a child who has the concept of conservation understands that       
 * the weight and mass of an object stay the same when the shape changes.     
 one should work out a strategy before starting on a complex task.     
 an object continues to exist even when one does not see it.      
 a group of people have to take turns talking to one another and then listening.     
    

An investigator shows a child two balls of clay of equal size and then squashes one of them and asks the child whether the squashed ball has more clay than the round ball. The experimenter is testing whether the child has the concept of     
 object permanence.      
 accommodation.      
 assimilation.      
 * conservation.      
    

To determine whether a child is in the preoperational stage or the stage of concrete operations, an investigator would be likely to test whether the child      
 has language. A     
 * understands conservation.      
 understands object permanence.      
 can answer hypothetical questions.      
    

Oblivia Sue understands that objects maintain their weight and volume after changes in shape. But she has trouble answering abstract or hypothetical questions. She is in which one of Piaget's stages?     
 formal operations      
 sensorimotor      
 * concrete operations      
 preoperational      
    

According to Piaget, children in the concrete- operations stage        
 * have trouble with abstract and hypothetical questions.      
 no longer use schemas. B     
 have only simple movements and do not use language.      
 lack the concept of conservation.      
    

Children first recognize and use the principle of conservation in which of Piaget's stages?       
 preoperational      
 formal operations      
 sensorimotor      
 * concrete operations      
    

To determine whether or not a child has reached the stage of formal operations, a psychologist might test whether the child can      
 understand that objects maintain certain properties despite changes in their shape.     
 speak in complete sentences.      
 understand that an object continues to exist even when it is out of sight.     
 * answer hypothetical and abstract questions.      
    

What should a psychologist test to determine whether a given child is in the concrete-operations stage or the formal-operations stage?      
 whether the child reaches around a barrier to retrieve a hidden toy     
 whether the child understands that an object maintains its weight and volume after its shape changes     
 * whether the child can answer abstract and hypothetical questions     
 whether the child can distinguish between appearance and reality     
    

What do children do in the formal-operations stage that they do not do in the concrete-operations stage?       
 understand that an object maintains its weight and volume after a change in its shape     
 reach around a barrier to retrieve a hidden object      
 * develop a systematic strategy for solving a problem      
 distinguish between appearance and reality      
    

Below are descriptions of four children. Which one is in Piaget's stage of formal operations?       
 performs well on tests of object permanence; still has trouble with conservation     
 * performs well on tests of object permanence, conservation, and hypothetical questions     
 has mastered the concept of conservation; still has trouble with abstract and hypothetical questions     
 has schemata; does not speak in complete sentences; fails tests of object permanence     
    

As a rule, a preoperational child who is asked which row of coins has "more" answers that the longer one has more (even if the two rows both have seven coins). What kind of experience is most likely to enable the child to give the correct answer?     
 First test the child on conservation of weight and conservation of volume tasks.     
 * First ask the same question about rows of three coins each.      
 First let the child spend an hour playing with coins.      
 First give the child a lecture about the properties of the number system.     
    

Even 3- and 4-year-old children can solve the conservation-of-number task (where one row of objects is more spread out than another row with an equal number of objects) using eight items if     
 the items are different colors for the two rows.      
 the items used are objects that the child is familiar with.      
 the items used are objects that the child is unfamiliar with.      
 * the child is given extensive practice doing the task with few items.     
    

One frequently drawn implication of Piaget's findings for education, that is consistent with Piaget's viewpoint, is that teachers in the lower grades should      
 * teach about concrete objects rather than abstract concepts.      
 rely on nonverbal communication as much as possible.      
 concentrate on advancing children to a higher stage of cognitive development.     
 spend more time lecturing about conservation of number.      
    

What is meant by the term "the zone of proximal development"?        
 The distance between what a person knows as a child and as an A adult.     
 * The distance between what a child can do on his or her own and what the child can do with the help of adults.     
 The time of transition between each of Piaget's stages of development.     
 The regression in development that occurs in one area as a child progresses in a similar, related area.     
    

When a young child learns a new word and its meaning, such as the word "baseball," the child will primarily associate the new word with      
 other words that sound the same, such as wall.      
 * similar objects in the same category, such as football and basketball.     
 different objects that are used at the same time as the first object, such as bat and glove.     
 other words that were most recently learned, whatever they might be.     
    

Experimenters tell 2-year-old children that a birthday cake is also called a "zig." Those children will probably also use the word "zig" to refer to      
 * other kinds of cake.      
 birthday presents. B     
 the fork and plate used to eat the cake.      
 the child who eats the cake.      
    

Infants around age 6 months babble. To what extent is their babbling influenced by what they hear?       
 The more the infant hears, the less it babbles.      
 From birth onward, the amount of babbling is directly proportional to how much the parents talk to the infant.     
 At first infants copy the sounds they hear; later they begin to invent new sounds of their own.     
 * At first, what infants hear makes no difference; later they begin to copy the sounds they hear.     
    

What is the typical age at which a baby says his or her first word?       
 1 month      
 6 months      
 * 1 year      
 2 years      
    

One reason why "muh-muh" (or something similar) is the word for mother in so many languages is that       
 infants frequently hear that sound from adults during the first 2 months of life.     
 * it is easy for infants to make that sound.      
 the sound "muh" is the opposite of a crying sound.      
 the sound "muh" is very similar to a crying sound.      
    

Mama, papa, dada, or baba are typically among the first words a child learns because       
 * they are based on the sounds that are the first sounds the baby makes.     
 they are the names for the people the baby is most likely to come in contact with, so they are explicitly taught (in other languages different words emerge first).    
 most infants stutter until they are able to gain full control over speech muscles.     
 babies repeat what they hear during the first 6 months, and these are the sounds they are most likely to hear at that time.     
    

A typical 1 1/2-year-old child has a vocabulary of about 50 words. Which of the following is such a child LEAST likely to do?       
 show some indication of understanding the meaning of words      
 * link several words together to form a sentence      
 repeat a word that someone else has just said      
 say a word that no one else has said to the child in the last minute     
    

Which of the following is true of a child's language development?        
 Almost any child old enough to say two or more words can link them into short sentences.     
 * As early as age 2 1/2 to 3 years, children act as if they understand grammatical rules.     
 The stages of language development and the mean ages of reaching them vary greatly from one society to another.     
 Up to at least age 4, most of a child's phrases and sentences are copied directly from what they have heard other people say.     
    

The speech of two-to three-year-old children suggests that they        
 learn words, but at this age still arrange the words in a haphazard, meaningless order.     
 can speak in complex sentences before they thoroughly understand such sentences.     
 mostly repeat phrases and sentences they have heard other people say.     
 * act as if they knew and applied grammatical rules.      
    

A child learns the word feet, but several months later stops saying "feet" and instead uses "foots." What seems to be the primary cause (or best explanation) of this change?      
 The child learns foots is easier to pronounce.      
 The child hears other people using the word foots.      
 * The child is trying to apply grammatical rules it is learning.     
 The child is reinforced for saying "foots" by parents and siblings who are amused at the error.     
    

When 2- to 3-year-old children speak, they        
 speak better than they understand speech. A     
 seldom say a sentence they have not already heard someone else say.     
 * overgeneralize grammatical rules.      
 use many verbs but few nouns.      
    

What reason do we have for believing that children as young as age 2 or 3 years understand certain grammatical rules?       
 They can state the rules.      
 They ask whether what they have just said was spoken correctly.     
 * They sometimes overgeneralize the rules.      
 They correct other children who make grammatical mistakes.      
    

The rate at which children pass through the various stages of language development       
 is slower in children of deaf parents, when the children have only periodic contact with speaking people.     
 is faster in advanced countries than in third- world countries. B    
 is accelerated when parents expose their children to as much language as possible.     
 * is largely dependent on maturation and is about the same in almost all children.     
    

What evidence do we have that children who were not exposed to any language at all would invent one of their own?       
 Children who were reared in orphanages in the 1930s invented a language of their own.     
 The Basque language of Spain is entirely different from that of all other European languages.     
 * Deaf children who fail to learn spoken language generally invent a sign language.     
 One investigator who reared a chimpanzee with his own child found that the child and chimp communicated by their own system of grunts and whistles.    
    

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, moral reasoning        
 varies more than most psychologists realize between one culture and another.     
 * develops through a sequence of stages that is the same for all people.     
 is just the learning of a rather arbitrary set of rules.      
 goes through a long plateau in adolescence before it begins to grow during young adulthood.     
    

Kohlberg measures a person's level of moral reasoning by determining       
 whether the person behaves in a moral, ethical fashion.      
 whether the person chooses the correct alternative when faced with a moral dilemma to decide upon.     
 * what reasons the person gives for his or her decision on a moral dilemma.     
 how much physiological arousal the person shows when worrying about a moral decision.     
    

What does Kohlberg examine to determine people's level of moral reasoning?       
 * the reasons people give for their answers on moral decisions      
 whether people's behavior matches what they say is right      
 whether people feel guilty when they hurt someone else      
 what people actually do in their everyday lives      
    

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, we should evaluate a person's level of moral reasoning mostly by observing       
 the decisions people make on moral dilemmas.      
 * the explanations people give for their decisions on moral dilemmas.     
 the morality of people's actions.      
 the amount of agreement between what people say and what they do.     
    

According to Kohlberg, people go through stages of moral reasoning. Which of the following is true of most people concerning their stage of moral reasoning?      
 * They may give answers suggesting a high stage on one question but a lower stage on another question.     
 They may move from any stage to any other stage, in any order.     
 Their stage of moral reasoning is very closely related to their actual moral behavior.     
 They do not begin to progress through the stages until young adulthood.     
    

Someone who operates at the highest level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's system would probably agree with which of the following statements?      
 "Good and evil" is just another term for "reward and punishment."     
 All moral decisions must be based on majority rule.      
 * Sometimes it is right to do something that violates the law.      
 The only basis for morality is to help other people and then expect them to help you.     
    

According to Kohlberg, the lowest stage of moral reasoning is one in which people make their decisions on the basis of       
 public opinion.      
 * reward and punishment.      
 law and order.      
 social contract.      
    

Which of the following statements about Kohlberg's stages of moral development is TRUE?       
 Most people are consistent in their moral views (i.e. their A responses to moral dilemmas are almost always characteristic of a single stage).    
 * Most people progress through the stages in the order Kohlberg suggested, although some never reach the highest stages.     
 Most people progress through the stages in the order Kohlberg suggested, and virtually everyone reaches the final stage.     
 Many people progress through the stages in an order that is different from the order Kohlberg proposed.     
    

Most 10-year-olds' judgments are at Kohlberg's first or second stage. Most 16-year-olds' judgments are       
 still at stage 2.      
 at stage 3.      
 * at stage 5.      
 at stage 6.      
    

Rachael Henry proposed that one of the reasons children going from age 10 to age 16 rapidly advance through Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning is that they      
 have been subjected to a wider range of punishments.      
 have been subject to more severe punishment. B     
 * are beginning to reject parental authority.      
 have more interactions with adults who are at stage 6.      
    

Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized because       
 different people go through the stages in different orders.      
 * many people give good answers to his questions but still behave immorally.     
 only people in the United States and western Europe go through the stages he describes.     
 most people give the same answers to his questions at age 20 as at age 10.     
    

Carol Gilligan's criticism of Lawrence Kohlberg's view of moral development is that Kohlberg       
 * concentrated on one type of moral reasoning (justice) and ignored another approach (caring).     
 put too much emphasis on moral behavior and not enough on moral reasoning.     
 overlooked cultural differences in the way people approach problems.     
 did not describe enough stages of development to account for all the variation among people.     
    

Gilligan initially proposed that differences between "justice" and "caring" orientations are based on ______ differences.       
 cultural      
 age      
 * sex      
 educational      
    

According to Carol Gilligan, people in the highest stage of moral reasoning, when operating from a "caring" orientation, make moral decisions by asking this question:      
 What is helpful or harmful to myself?      
 * What is helpful or harmful to myself and others?      
 What is helpful or harmful to others?      
 What is best from the standpoint of abstract principles?      
    

When determining a person's level of moral development, Gilligan focuses on       
 the decision reached by the person facing a moral dilemma.      
 whether the person's reasoning considers the probability of punishment.     
 whether the person's reasoning considers ethical principles of justice.     
 * whether the person's reasoning considers the effects of the decision on the people involved.     
    

At what level would someone's moral reasoning be according to Kohlberg if he or she was classified as being at the highest stage according to Gilligan's system?      
 low      
 high      
 * either low or high      
 A person classified by Gilligan could not be classified by Kohlberg, since Gilligan deals only with females and Kohlberg deals only with males.    
    

Gilligan believes that each of us has within ourselves two "voices" of morality, one of ______ and one of ______.       
 selfish interests ... altruism      
 absolutism ... relativism      
 intrinsic values ... extrinsic values      
 * justice ... caring      
    

An investigator who uses a cross-sectional design        
 compares people from different cultures.      
 examines a single group of people at several times as they grow.     
 * examines different groups of people at the same time.      
 compares humans to other animal species.      
    

What does an investigator examine in a longitudinal design?        
 different people (of different ages) at the same time A     
 * a single group of people at different times      
 different species of animals      
 people from different countries or different cultures      
    

In which kind of study does an investigator repeatedly study the same group of people as they get older?       
 cross-cultural      
 cross-sectional      
 * longitudinal      
 factor analysis      
    

Yesterday Professor Eaton asked children of different ages (6 through 12) to list their favorite foods, and then compared the results for different ages. This is an example of which kind of study?     
 double-blind      
 single-blind B     
 longitudinal      
 * cross-sectional      
    

Infants with a "difficult" temperament are likely to grow up to be difficult children and eventually troubled adults. That statement MUST be based on evidence from which kind of study?      
 single-blind      
 double-blind      
 * longitudinal      
 cross-sectional      
    

A researcher demonstrates that most children display approximately the same temperament at age 7 that they had at age 2. The study that led to this conclusion MUST have followed which kind of design?     
 cross-sectional study      
 * longitudinal study      
 representative sampling      
 random sampling      
    

Selective attrition (the problem that some of the subjects in a study may drop out before the study is completed) is a complication in which kind(s) of study?      
 cross-sectional study      
 * longitudinal study      
 both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, but more so in a cross-sectional study     
 neither cross-sectional nor longitudinal studies      
    

One advantage of a cross-sectional design for studying age differences is that it       
 ensures that the people studied at each age have the same abilities.     
 is not affected by differences among cohorts.      
 * can be completed in a short period of time.      
 is automatically double blind.      
    

One DISADVANTAGE of longitudinal designs is that        
 the groups selected for comparison may differ in more regards than just age.     
 the results cannot be analyzed statistically.      
 * it is hard to separate differences due to age from differences due to changes in society.     
 the results must be inferred from memories reported long after the events actually occurred.     
    

Which of the following studies would be IMPOSSIBLE to answer by means of a cross-sectional study?       
 At what age do most children first understand the concept of conservation of number?     
 Do sixth-grade children generally like music different from what first-grade children like?     
 * Do the children who are the best artists at age 6 remain outstanding at art as they grow older?     
 Do older children generally have a better ability to memorize facts than do younger children?     
    

The people born in the 1970s have different interests and attitudes than the people born in the 1950s ever did. This difference is due to a difference in      
 role diffusion.      
 syntax.      
 * cohorts.      
 assimilation.      
    

You are in the same "cohort" as other people who        
 have the same interests that you do.      
 * were born at about the same time you were.      
 have an IQ score within 10 points of yours.      
 live in the same part of the country where you do.      
    

Which of the following observations may be most easily explained as being due to a difference in "cohorts"?       
 Today's 60-year-olds are approaching the age of "ego A integrity vs. despair."     
 * Today's 60-year-olds know more about the Vietnam War than do today's 20-year-olds.     
 Today's 60-year-olds know more about Social Security than they used to 20 years ago.     
 Today's 60-year-olds tend to have different attitudes from one another, depending on which part of the country they grew up in.    
    

Suppose you wish to study the effect of age on a behavior that is known to change from year to year as society changes (such as preferences in clothing or music or politics). Which experimental design should you use?     
 longitudinal      
 * cross-sectional      
 anecdotal      
 retrospective      
    

Trust vs. mistrust, intimacy vs. isolation, and generativity vs. stagnation are stages in       
 Freud's stages of psychosexual development.      
 * Erikson's ages of social and emotional development. B     
 Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning.      
 Maslow's hierarchy of needs.      
    

Erik Erikson's ages of development deal with        
 * social and emotional development.      
 development of moral reasoning.      
 language development.      
 intellectual development.      
    

Someone in Erikson's age of "basic trust vs. mistrust" would be in which age group?       
 adolescent      
 preadolescent      
 toddler      
 * infant      
    

According to Erik Erikson, the "identity crisis" (the question "Who am I?") is of greatest concern to people of what age?       
 toddlers      
 preschool children      
 older adults      
 * adolescents      
    

According to Erik Erikson, "intimacy vs. isolation" is of greatest concern to people in which age group?       
 preschool children      
 adolescents      
 * young adults      
 older adults      
    

According to Erik Erikson, the major conflict of middle adulthood (late 20s through retirement) is       
 superiority vs. inferiority      
 intimacy vs. isolation      
 * generativity vs. stagnation      
 initiative vs. guilt      
    

Harlow's studies of infant monkeys suggest that an infant's attachment to its mother depends mostly on       
 nutrition.      
 imitative modeling.      
 * contact comfort.      
 the pleasure of sucking.      
    

What is the main evidence for our belief that an infant's attachment to the mother depends mainly on contact comfort?       
 Piaget's observations of infants      
 * the Harlows' studies of monkeys with artificial mothers      
 Freud's reports on the recollections of his patients      
 Skinner's studies of the reinforcing value of various stimuli      
    

In Harlow and Harlow's experiments with infant monkeys, the artificial cloth mothers were adequate for the infants' development in many regards, but the monkeys did not develop normal     
 security needs.      
 * social behaviors.      
 physical health.      
 vision and hearing.      
    

In which way were Harlow and Harlow's artificial mothers unsatisfactory for the normal development of the infants reared with them?      
 The infants derived no security from being with their A artificial mothers.     
 * The babies failed to develop normal social behavior.      
 The babies formed no attachment to the artificial mothers.      
 The artificial mothers did not provide contact comfort.      
    

When Harlow and Harlow reared baby monkeys with an artificial mother, what kind of experience enabled them to develop more normal social behaviors?      
 daily training on operant-conditioning tasks      
 * an opportunity to play with other infant monkeys      
 hearing tape-recorded sounds of normal monkeys      
 an opportunity to play with older monkeys      
    

In certain orphanages of the early 1900s, babies were given very little social interaction or stimulation. Later in life they       
 were especially helpful to other lonely, isolated children.      
 tried especially hard to make friends and keep them. B     
 * were retarded in physical growth and intellectual development.     
 were about the same as any other children.      
    

In what way were many of the orphanages of the early 1900s similar to the artificial monkeys in the Harlows' studies?       
 Both failed to meet the nutritional needs of the infant.      
 Both produced advanced physical growth in the infants.      
 * Neither provided the social contact needed for infants to learn how to relate to each other.     
 Neither produced any long-term negative effects, despite the problems seen in infancy.     
    

Parents who set firm rules for their children, without explaining why those rules are good, and who tend to be cold and distant to their children, are known as ______ parents.      
 authoritative      
 * authoritarian      
 permissive      
 cohort      
    

European-American children who show self-reliance and self-control, cooperate with others, and generally do well in school are MOST characteristic of children whose parents have a(an) ______ parenting style.     
 permissive      
 cohort      
 * authoritative      
 authoritarian      
    

European-American children of authoritarian parents tend to        
 lack a sense of social responsibility.      
 be especially independent.      
 be slow in language development.      
 * be discontent and distrustful.      
    

Authoritarian European-American parents tend to have children who are somewhat ______; authoritarian African-American parents tend to have children who are somewhat ______.      
 assertive ... withdrawn      
 assertive ... assertive      
 * withdrawn ... assertive      
 withdrawn ... withdrawn      
    

What is meant by "parallel play"?        
 Two or more children playing in a cooperative manner.      
 * Two or more children playing at the same time and place, but independently.     
 A child simultaneously mimicking the actions of an adult.      
 Two children imitating and mimicking the behavior of each other.     
    

Some children are "popular," others "rejected," and yet other "controversial." Which characteristic is most likely to be found in a "controversial" child?      
 * an aggressive streak      
 low intelligence      
 overly affectionate      
 absence of any social skills      
    

Having low self-esteem, doing poorly in school and poorly in athletics have all been associated with       
 being a firstborn child.      
 being an only child.      
 being a later-born (2nd, 3rd, etc.) child.      
 * having few friends.      
    

Studies on the effects of being a firstborn child or being born later have shown       
 later-born children do better in school. A     
 firstborn children are more popular.      
 later-born children are more ambitious and honest.      
 * small and inconsistent differences between firstborn and later-born children.     
    

When does adolescence begin?        
 * at the first signs of sexual maturation      
 at age 12      
 when a person enters junior high school      
 when a person reaches Piaget's stage of formal operations      
    

A number of programs have been developed in an attempt to prevent juvenile delinquency. To date, the programs with the most impressive results have been those that involve      
 training parents how to be more authoritarian.      
 physical punishment (shock) of specific acts of delinquent behavior. B    
 * attempts to improve young people's educational performance.      
 psychosurgery.      
    

What is meant by "identity foreclosure"?        
 a deliberate, conscious selection of one's preferred identity      
 * acceptance of a role defined by one's parents      
 experimentation with a variety of roles      
 a period of intense doubt about the identity one has chosen      
    

At certain times and places, women were subject to "identity foreclosure." In other words, they       
 played no important role in their society.      
 * had few or no choices available to them.      
 were expected to change their role and identity from time to time.     
 had an unusually severe and difficult identity crisis.      
    

If society offers young people a wide range of choices in life and great freedom in making those choices, it REDUCES the probability of      
 * identity foreclosure.      
 identity achievement.      
 role diffusion.      
 identity crisis.      
    

To say that a given adolescent is experiencing "role diffusion" is to say that this person       
 assumes the role that his or her parents have prescribed.      
 has no interest in dealing with an identity crisis.      
 * assumes greatly different roles at different times.      
 has consciously selected a single, stable identity.      
    

A deliberate selection of one's own goals, values, and place in society is known as       
 identity foreclosure.      
 role diffusion.      
 moratorium.      
 * identity achievement.      
    

"Tragedy will never strike me.... I will succeed in all my ambitions.... Everyone notices how I look." According to David Elkind, these beliefs are part of the adolescent's      
 identity crisis.      
 preoperational thinking.      
 * personal fable.      
 moral dilemma.      
    

Compared to other high school girls, high school girls who are having unprotected sex give lower estimates of the chances of becoming pregnant through unprotected sex. This "it can't happen to me" attitude is a clear example of     
 an identity foreclosure.      
 * a personal fable.      
 a cohort effect.      
 authoritarianism.      
    

With regards to the sharing of personal and private information,        
 men are more likely than women to reveal themselves to a dating partner.     
 men are more likely than women to reveal themselves to a close friend (but not a dating partner).     
 * both men and women are generally reluctant to reveal themselves to a dating partner early in the relationship.     
 both men and women seem relatively at ease sharing intimate communication on a first date.     
    

Strangers seldom talk openly to each other or reveal much about themselves, with the occasional exception of strangers who       
 have many friends in common. A     
 expect to work together closely on a project.      
 * expect never to see each other again.      
 are trying to make a good impression on each other.      
    

In two-income families there exists an interesting correlation, specifically:       
 the more time a father spends with the child the less money the mother makes.     
 * the more time a father spends with the child the less the father reports loving the mother.     
 the more money the mother makes the less the father reports loving the child.     
 the more time the mother spends with the child the more the mother reports loving the father.     
    

On the average, what is the relationship between age and job satisfaction?       
 * Job satisfaction is higher among older workers than among younger workers.     
 Job satisfaction increases for a while and then declines. B     
 Job satisfaction is higher among younger workers than among older workers.     
 Job satisfaction has no relationship to age.      
    

Job satisfaction, on the average, is(was) higher in ______ than in ______.       
 1995 ... 1975      
 blacks ... whites      
 women ... men      
 * older workers ... younger workers