The study of how people think, acquire knowledge, imagine, plan, and solve problems is called _______ psychology. semantic * cognitive functional operational Cognitive psychologists would be LEAST likely to study * the physical changes in neurons that result from thinking and memory. problem-solving behavior in adults. how children acquire knowledge about their environment. how people use language to communicate with each other. One of the main reasons cognitive psychology began to flourish was the development of models based on the functioning of individual neurons. * computers. turbine engines. great apes and chimpanzees. Research on category formation has found that almost all of our categories are formed by the time we reach age 5. * our ability to form categories enables us to make educated guesses about features we have not seen firsthand. most people categorize objects in the same way, regardless of their culture. the formation of categories interferes with memory retrieval of the information being categorized. The categorization-by-prototypes approach is based on which of the following assumptions? All members of a category are at the same level in a mental space. People from different cultures use the same ways of categorizing objects. * People decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it to familiar or typical examples. Every category has a sharp dividing line that separates members of the category from nonmembers. According to the categorization-by-prototypes approach, how do we decide whether an item belongs to a particular category? We count how many defining characteristics of the category it has. We consult a memorized list of which items belong to the category. * We compare the item to the most typical members of the category. We compare the features of the item to a precise definition of the category. According to the categorization-by-prototypes approach, how do we decide whether or not an elevator is an example of a vehicle? * We compare it to typical examples of vehicles. We compare its features to a list of the features that define vehicles. We simply memorize a list of which things are vehicles and which ones are not. We consider whether or not most other people would call an elevator a vehicle. For which kind of category is the categorization-byprototypes approach MOST useful or appropriate? well-defined categories such as "bachelor" A * vaguely defined categories such as "country music" categories in the natural sciences such as "coulomb" categories that refer to only a single individual such as "the chairman of the psychology department" Psychologists devised the categorization-by-prototypes approach in order to account for the fact that people can answer questions about typical birds faster than they can answer questions about unusual birds. answer whether a canary sings faster than they can answer whether a canary has skin. state a clear definition of almost every category that they use. * deal with vaguely defined categories such as "vehicle" or "intelligent person." People deal with some categories that are poorly defined, such as "vehicle." Which theory or approach claims that we deal with such categories by learning a few typical examples of the category and then comparing other items to those examples? categorization-by-levels spreading activation B * categorization-by-prototypes availability heuristic According to the categorization-by-levels approach, we learn that a canary is a kind of bird, which is a kind of animal. We also learn the distinctive characteristics of canaries, birds, and animals. What evidence SUPPORTS this view? People deal with many categories that are not clearly defined, such as "vehicles." * People answer fast when asked whether a canary is yellow and slowly when asked whether a canary has skin. People who answer (correctly) that a canary has skin are likely also to say (incorrectly) that a canary has hair. People answer fast when asked whether a canary has wings and slowly when asked whether a penguin has wings. According to the categorization-by-levels approach, WHY does it take a person longer to answer whether a canary has skin than to answer whether a canary is yellow? Mental images form gradually, beginning with color and ending with shape. The category "canary" is poorly defined and so is the category "animals with skin." * Yellow is a distinctive property of canaries, while skin is a property of animals. Canaries are not typical birds (like robins are, for example). Most people can answer the question "Do canaries sing?" faster than they can answer the question "Do canaries have skin?" That observation is considered evidence in SUPPORT of which theory of categorization? * categorization-by-levels categorization-by-imagery categorization-by-prototypes categorization-by-base-rate-information According to the categorization-by-levels approach, how do we answer the question "Do canaries have skin?" "Dogs have skin. Canaries and dogs are similar in many ways. So canaries have skin too." "I can imagine a canary that I have seen; yes, I see skin in my mental image." "Canaries have bones and organs on the inside, which are surrounded by muscles, which are covered by skin." * "Canaries are birds; birds are animals; animals have skin; so canaries have skin." The categorization-by-levels approach makes which of the following predictions? People should answer whether robins can fly more quickly than they answer whether canaries can fly. When people try to name as many birds as possible, most should think of robins before they think of canaries. People should answer whether canaries have skin faster than they answer whether robins have skin. * People should answer whether canaries are yellow faster than they answer whether canaries have skin. Which of the following points out a limitation of the categorization-by-levels approach? People are quick to answer whether canaries are yellow; they are slower to answer whether canaries have skin. * People are quick to answer whether robins lay eggs; they are slower to answer whether penguins lay eggs. People can correctly answer whether penguins have feathers, even though feathers are not a distinctive characteristic of penguins. People who do not know that penguins are birds are likely to think that penguins do not have feathers. According to the categorization-by-levels approach, which of the following questions should most people answer MOST RAPIDLY? Do Eskimos have skin? Do Eskimos draw pictures? Do Eskimos wear clothes? * Do Eskimos wear parkas? According to the "spreading activation" theory, which of the following would someone be most likely to think of after hearing the word "rose"? flower red resurrection * It is impossible to say: it would vary from individual to individual and from time to time. When studying mental processes, what variable are cognitive psychologists most likely to measure? people's descriptions of their thought processes A eye movements * how long it takes to answer various questions brain waves Which of the following is a common method that cognitive psychologists use to measure mental activities? * Time how long people take to answer certain questions. Record brain activity while people are thinking. Ask people to describe their own thinking. Try to build machines that make the same mistakes that people make. Subjects watch as a number is flashed on the screen. Then they answer whether it was one of the numbers 3, 4, 6, or 7. (They answer "yes" or "no.") How do they determine their answer? * They compare what they saw to each of the four numbers, one at a time. They compare what they saw to all four of the numbers simultaneously. B They use a method that is faster than comparing what they saw to just one number. The question is unanswerable; we cannot know whether they make the comparisons separately or simultaneously. Subjects in an experiment are doing two tasks at the same time to see if performing one task interferes with performance of the other. Under which condition would we be MOST certain to find interference? If one task was performed by the left hand and the other by the right. If one task was a visual task and the other was a motor task. * If one or both tasks were difficult and required attention. If both tasks were so routine that the person was not paying attention to what he or she was doing. Under which of the following conditions, if any, will a person be able to perform two tasks simultaneously as well as either task could be performed alone? * Only if both tasks are routine. If at least one of the tasks is routine, even if the other demands attention. Only if both tasks are nonroutine. Under no circumstances: performance of two tasks simultaneously always produces interference between the tasks. Subjects are shown two complex objects and are asked whether one object could be rotated in three dimensions until it matched the other one. When the answer is "yes," the subjects' speed of answering depends on * how far the first object would actually have to rotate in order to match the second object. whether the object would have to rotate clockwise or counterclockwise in order to match the second object. whether the subject is left-handed or right-handed. the color of the object. What evidence do we have that mental images are similar to perceptions? Enhanced activity can be recorded from the retina of the eye after someone has been told to imagine a given visual pattern. * The time it takes to mentally rotate a visual image is proportional to the time it would take to actually watch something rotate. When it is dark or foggy outside, people report that their mental images have become blurry also. It is possible to form a clear mental image of something that one has never actually seen. People are shown a pair of complex figures, and they are asked whether one figure could be rotated to match the other figure. Their speed of responding depends on the degree of convergence needed for the two eyes to focus on a point between the two figures. the distance between the two figures on the page. * the number of degrees one figure would have to be rotated in order to match the other figure. the distance between the person and the drawing of the figures. Research involving the mental rotation of objects suggests that mental imagery resembles vision in at least some ways. What research finding casts doubt on that conclusion? * Blind people often respond similarly to sighted people when told to "use mental images". The visual cortex is inactive when people use mental imagery. People generally give self-reports that deny the use of mental imagery. Positive results in mental imagery experiments are only found in children, not adults. What do psychologists mean by the term "cognitive map"? a set of connections among units in the brain * a mental representation of a spatial arrangement a description of the category levels that a person uses a drawing that a person studies to try to form a mental image When people draw a map from memory, such as a map of a college campus, which of these mistakes are they most likely to make? leaving out the buildings near the center of the campus drawing streets as being more curved than they really are drawing the buildings in the most crowded area of the campus as being closer together than they really are * showing street angles as being closer to 90 degrees than they really are Fred is a freshman at Watsamata University. Sam is a senior. If both were asked to draw a map of the Watsamata U. campus, how would the maps probably differ? Freshman Fred would be more likely to use crayons; senior Sam A would draw in ink. * Senior Sam would include more detail in his map. Freshman Fred would be more likely to label each of the campus buildings. Senior Sam would draw most street angles as 90@; freshman Fred would draw few, if any, of the street angles as 90@. Each of the statements below is false. Based on the way people typically form cognitive maps, which of the statements below would people be MOST likely to (incorrectly) AGREE with? Dallas, TX is west of El Paso, TX. Washington, DC is north of Philadelphia, PA. Miami, FL is north of New Orleans, LA. * Reno, NV is east of Los Angeles, CA. Research on the development of expertise reveals that, in general, experts were born with their special talent. it takes about 1-2 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. B * it takes about 10 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. it takes about 20 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. Research indicates that in most fields the difference between an expert and someone less accomplished is that in most cases the expert was "born with" a natural ability for the task. is less likely to group information into chunks or patterns. is less confident in his or her abilities. * has devoted an enormous amount of time and effort learning the skill. Under what circumstances is an expert chess player more successful than an unskilled player at memorizing the positions of chess pieces on a board? under all circumstances when the pieces have been placed on the board in a random manner * when the pieces have been arranged as they might be in an actual game under no circumstances At least under certain circumstances, an expert chess player can memorize the positions of chess pieces on a board more rapidly and more accurately than a beginning chess player can. Why? Only people with a superior memory can ever progress far enough to become expert chess players. Practice at playing chess improves people's memory, not just in chess but in other regards as well. * Expert chess players learn to recognize familiar patterns that often occur in chess games. Beginning chess players quickly become discouraged and do not even try to memorize the positions. Although years of playing chess improves people's expertise at playing the game, it does not improve their overall memory. What evidence do we have for this conclusion? Expert chess players are no better than beginners are at memorizing the position of pieces on the board when they are arranged as they might be in the middle of a well-played game. Expert chess players are no better than beginners are at recalling what happened during the chess match they played yesterday. Expert chess players claim that they use logic rather than mental imagery to choose their moves. * Expert chess players are no better than beginners are at memorizing the position of pieces on a chess board if they are arranged randomly. An expert chess player and a beginner both look at a picture of chess pieces arranged on a board in a random manner. Then they try to draw that position from memory. Which one (if either) will remember better, and why? The expert will remember better, because of a greater ability to remember unfamiliar patterns. The expert will remember better, because of a greater overall ability to memorize. The beginner will remember better, because the expert will be hampered by the effects of retroactive interference. * The two will remember about equally well, because the pattern is unfamiliar to both. You are asked to determine which of two people is an expert chess player. (The other one is a beginner.) You could quickly do so by answering the following question: Which one is better at memorizing the positions of chess pieces arranged randomly on a chessboard? Which one can correctly describe the position of the pieces at the beginning of the game? * Which one is better at memorizing the positions of chess pieces arranged on the board as they might actually occur during a game? Which one would prefer to use the white pieces instead of the black pieces? Several studies have compared the ability of expert chess players and beginners to memorize the positions of chess pieces arranged in various ways on the board. Which general conclusion do psychologists draw from the results of those studies? People who become experts must develop greater reasoning abilities, because their memory differs in no way from that of beginners. People who become experts in any field are likely to be worse than average at skills unrelated to that field. * An important part of expertise is the ability to recognize complex, familiar patterns. Only people with a superior overall memory are likely to become experts at any skill. In what way are the ability of an expert figure skater similar to the abilities of an expert chess player? Both can store more than seven "chunks" in their short-term memory. * Both can recognize and memorize meaningful patterns of information in their respective fields better than nonexperts. Both show more retroactive, but less proactive, interference for information in their respective fields than nonexperts do. Both are better at remembering unfamiliar patterns than they are at remembering familiar patterns. Psychologists say that people go through four phases in solving a problem. Which one of the following is NOT one of those four phases? * devising a representative sample A understanding the problem generating one or more hypotheses testing the hypotheses Suppose you do not know the circumference of the Earth. You can nevertheless make a decent estimate if you know the distance from New York to Miami and the time it takes to drive from one to the other. * the distance from New York to Los Angeles and the number of time zones between them. the circumference of the moon and the distance from the Earth to the moon. the length of a year and the distance from the Earth to the sun. Which of the following is good advice for someone trying to solve a difficult problem? Begin with the question to be answered and work backward. Examine various aspects of the problem in a random fashion. B * Start with a simpler version of the problem. Allow solutions to flow in and out of your mind while you focus your attention on things other than the problem at hand. A mechanical, repetitive mathematical procedure for solving a problem is known as a/an ______. * algorithm heuristic prototype hypothesis What are "heuristics"? mental representations of spatial arrangements mechanical, repetitive mathematical procedures for solving a problem * strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation highly typical members of a category Under which circumstances is it better to use heuristics to solve a problem than to rely on an algorithm? * when there are too many possible hypotheses to test them all when it is necessary to get an answer that is precisely accurate when it is possible to calculate the correct answer quickly and simply when the question has to do with physics or chemistry Sometimes we recognize similar problems as being similar and attempt to use our old solution for the new problem. Other times we do not. Generalization of a solution is most likely to occur if we have seen the solution exclusively in one specific context. the solution is complex. * we have seen several examples of the solution. we have forgotten the original problem. One difference between solving problems in algebra and solving "insight" problems is that when people try to solve an algebra problem, they make use of heuristics. they think of the answer suddenly or not at all. * they can usually estimate how close they are to solving it. they make use of base-rate information. Evidence from research on problem solving indicates that * although the solution to insight problems seems to come suddenly, people actually make some gradual progress toward the solution. although the solution to insight problems seems to come gradually, people actually arrive at the solution all at once. although the solution to algebra problems seems to come gradually, people actually arrive at the solution all at once. when people solve insight problems, the answer comes all at once, just as it seems to. Psychologists define "creativity" as the development of products that are both ______ and ______. familiar ... socially valued paradigmatic ... paradoxical * novel ... socially valued novel ... familiar What do the "Torrance Tests" attempt to measure? logical reasoning language comprehension * creative thinking brain activity The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking are given to measure creativity. People who score high on these tests have been shown to have IQs in the top 2% of people. A have a general ability to perform creatively, regardless of the situation. * score consistently high on other, similar versions of the test, but are not necessarily creative in other situations. be inconsistent in creativity if tested again with other, similar versions of the test. Howard Gardner (1993) studied the lives of seven individuals who are widely regarded as very creative in their respective fields, including Freud, Einstein, Picasso, and others. He found a few things those people had in common. Which was NOT one of those common patterns? * A generally "well-rounded" life. A moderate dissatisfaction with the old ways of doing things. A moderately high degree of familiarity with the relevant topic. Reliance on one or a few trusted friends for advice. People are MOST likely to be overconfident in the accuracy of their predictions when predicting events that are virtually certain to occur. changes in the weather. B the accomplishments of other people. * their own accomplishments. In one study, people who make their living predicting world events (government officials, professors, newspaper columnists, etc.) were asked to predict U.S. and world politics over the next several years. Those who were most accurate were more likely than others to be extremely conservative, politically. be extremely liberal, politically. base their predictions on historical analogy. * have reservations about the accuracy of their predictions. In one study experts made predictions of U.S. and world politics over the next several years. How accurate were their predictions, compared to the predictions the general public might make, and how confident were they in their predictions? They were much more accurate than the general public would be, but were not very confident in their predictions. They were much less accurate than the general public would be, but were very confident in their predictions. They were about as accurate as the general public would be, but were not very confident in their predictions. * They were about as accurate as the general public would be, but were very confident in their predictions. Subjects in an experiment were shown photographs of a scene and were asked to identify the scene. Some subjects were shown two versions (1st:extremely out of focus & 2nd slightly out of focus) while others saw only the 2nd, slightly blurry photo. What were the results? Subjects who saw both pictures were better at identifying the second because they formed hypotheses about the first one. * Subjects who saw both pictures were worse at identifying the second because they formed hypotheses about the first one. Subjects who saw both pictures were worse at identifying the second because viewing the first briefly interfered with their ability to focus their eyes. All subjects were equally able to identify the context of the second photo, regardless of whether or not they had seen the extremely blurry version. A theory predicts that under certain circumstances we shall get certain results. Someone sets up those circumstances and gets the predicted results. Is this sufficient to demonstrate that the theory is correct? If not, what else is necessary? Yes, getting the predicted results demonstrates that the theory is correct. * No, it is also necessary to test the cases in which the theory predicts that we shall NOT get those same results. No, it is necessary to state the theory as a mathematical formula. No, it is necessary to repeat the same experiment at least eight times. You have just met someone who fits exactly your preconception of how a U.S. astronaut would look and act. You therefore decide that this person must be an astronaut -- even though there are very few if any decision on the basis of the word-superiority effect. categorization-by-levels approach. Stroop effect. * representativeness heuristic. The tendency to assume that if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is probably a member of that category itself, is known as the Stroop effect. base-rate effect. * representativeness heuristic. availability heuristic. People who rely on the representativeness heuristic tend to overlook which kind of information? * base-rate information reaction-time information script information creativity information The term "base-rate information" refers to information about what percentage of the available information supports a theory. * how rare or common something is. how well someone can perform a given task. the relationship between learning and performance. A radar operator is trying to determine whether something on the screen is a hawk or a missile. Before deciding, the operator should consider which of the two is more common. In other words, the operator should consider heuristics. A * base-rate information. the prototype. the cognitive map. Someone who overlooks "base-rate information" is likely to make which kind of error? accepting too large a risk of losing a large amount accepting the first hypothesis considered and rejecting all others being excessively cautious about making any decision at all * identifying some common event as if it were some other, rare event Someone sees a strange-looking flying object. It might be a white pelican, or it might be a UFO from outer space. The viewer decides that it is a UFO. Assuming that it really was a pelican, which mistake of reasoning has the viewer made? failure to use the availability heuristic failure to use the representativeness heuristic B * failure to consider base-rate information failure to use a cognitive map Zeke sees someone at the grocery store who looks like a famous movie actor. He assumes it really is the actor and overlooks the fact that about 1% of all adult men look a little like that actor. What error has Zeke made? failure to rely on the availability heuristic failure to use a cognitive map * failure to consider base-rate information the Stroop effect The availability heuristic is based on the assumption that if we ask a question in the proper manner, we will get the correct answer. if we are not sure whether we are looking at something from category A or category B, it is probably from the more common category. if we have found much evidence for a hypothesis and no evidence against it, then the hypothesis is probably correct. * if we can easily remember a few examples of some event, then it must be a common event. Because it is easier to think of words that start with k than words that have k as the third letter, most people assume that our language has more words starting with k than words with k in the third position. That kind of reasoning is an example of _______. cognitive maps the Stroop effect * the availability heuristic categorization-by-levels People sometimes form a stereotype (or prejudice) about members of a certain group because they remember a few people who fit the stereotype and forget those who do not fit it. Reasoning of this type is an example of the Stroop effect. use of algorithms. * availability heuristic. use of base-rate information. Most people tend to consider themselves better than average, or at least average, drivers. We do so because when we think of other drivers we most easily remember unusually bad drivers, and compare ourselves to them. In other words, we make a decision based on base-rate information. * the availability heuristic. the representativeness heuristic. an algorithm. Most people would prefer to take some action that would save 200 lives than an action that has a one-third chance of saving 600 lives. Which of the following procedures is most likely to get them to change their minds? * Reframe the question so it asks about avoiding a loss of lives instead of making it possible to save lives. Tell people to think over their decision for a day or two and talk about it with their friends. Describe the two actions in more detail so the people understand how the procedures work. Change the order of the question so that the people hear first about the possibility of a one-third chance of saving 600 lives. Listed below are four choices between a sure thing and a gamble. In which case are people most likely to prefer the gamble? choice between a sure gain of $100 and a 50% chance of winning $200 * choice between a sure loss of $100 and a 50% chance of losing $200 choice between a sure gain of $100 and a two-thirds chance of winning $150 choice between a sure gain of $100 and a 10% chance of winning $1000 Under which circumstances are people most likely to take a gamble? in order to gain something of value * in order to avoid losing something when the possible wins and losses are great under all circumstances equally Someone says, "More than 90% of all college students like to watch late-late night television, while only 20% of older adults do. Therefore most watchers of late-late television are college students." What error in thinking has this person made? * failure to consider base-rate information A reliance on the representativeness heuristic categorization-by-levels failure to use a cognitive map One reason that people gamble in lotteries despite the fact that the odds are against them, is the fact that they believe that they have as good a chance as anyone else to win on any given day. * they believe that they have a better chance than anyone else, due to their skill at picking numbers. they really don't care about the value of the money they lose. they believe that everyone will eventually win if they just keep playing long enough. People are most likely to sell their lottery ticket to someone else for what it cost them if * the numbers on the ticket were selected for them by someone else. the prize is extremely large (and they therefore assume their chance must be low). B they choose their own numbers. they have won the lottery in the past. Under which of the following conditions would the greatest number of people favor risk over certainty? a certain gain of $1 vs. a 50% chance of gaining $2 a certain gain of $1 vs. a 1% chance of $100 * a certain gain of $1 vs. a 1-in-2-million chance of $1 million people will almost always select the riskier choice Gamblers placing a series of bets typically win on a _______ schedule of reinforcement. fixed-ratio fixed-interval * variable-ratio variable-interval Because of the way gamblers tend to evaluate their own success for a string of bets, a horse-race gambler who has lost money on the first few races of the day will typically not bet on the last race. bet a reduced amount on the last race. bet the same amount on the last race that he or she has been betting on the earlier races. * bet more than usual on the last race. One reason why some people buy many lottery tickets, even though their probability of winning is low, is the process known as simultaneous contrast. the Whorf hypothesis. * vicarious reinforcement. the Stroop effect. Showing big winners of the lottery on television each week increases the likelihood that viewers will buy lottery tickets based on both * vicarious reinforcement and the availability heuristic. negative reinforcement and the Stroop effect. paired associate learning and the partial- reinforcement extinction effect. vicarious punishment and the representativeness heuristic. Suppose you flip a coin eight times, recording the order of heads (H) and tails (T). If the first four coin flips all are heads, which sequence below, if any, would be most likely for the last four flips? H H H H T T T T H T H T * Each of the above sequences is equally likely. The gambler's fallacy refers to the belief that * a particular outcome is more likely if it has not occurred recently. a particular outcome is less likely if it has not come recently. the expected value increases each time a gamble is taken. some people can consistently win at games of chance. A gambler is betting on red at the roulette table. ACCORDING TO THE GAMBLER'S FALLACY, if the roulette wheel landed on black numbers the last seven spins in a row, the eighth spin will probably also be black. has a 50/50 chance of being red. * will probably be red. will probably pay off for whoever bet on the number 7 black. One of the primary reasons that humans dominate and control the world more than other species do is that our brains are larger than any other species. A we are the only species that uses tools. we are the only species that communicates with one another. * our brains are organized in a way that promotes the development of language. Beginning in the 1920s, some chimpanzees were raised by psychologists in their homes as they would raise a child. What were these researchers attempting to discover? whether or not the principles of operant conditioning applied to animals as well as humans whether or not the principles of classical conditioning applied to animals as well as humans * whether or not chimpanzees could learn language whether or not chimpanzees could learn to use heuristics In the 1960s and 70s Gardner and Gardner were able to teach a chimpanzee (named Washoe) to communicate by imitating human voice sounds. writing. B typing on a computer terminal. * sign language. Following extensive training, the use of symbols by common chimpanzees has failed to show the flexibility of human language. Greater success has been demonstrated in studies using ______. * bonobos dolphins zebras wombats How do the language abilities of pygmy chimpanzees (bonobos) used in recent studies differ from those of the common chimpanzees used in earlier studies? Pygmy chimps communicate only with each other, not with people. The common chimps were better at making original, creative requests. * Pygmy chimps are more likely to use symbols to describe objects they are not requesting. The common chimps showed a better understanding of spoken language. Pygmy chimpanzees (bonobos) have shown greater progress in language development than any of the other apes in previous language-training studies. One possible explanation for their success is that their training * began early in life and relied more on imitation. was based mostly on the techniques used in teaching autistic children. involved immediate positive reinforcement, unlike the earlier studies. involved classical conditioning, unlike the earlier studies. Based on the recent studies of pygmy chimpanzees, good advice for someone teaching language to children born with a handicap that impairs language would be to * begin language training when the child is young. rely on direct reinforcement for correct responses, rather than relying on imitation. use plastic chips to represent words, rather than sign language. reinforce verbs and adverbs more than nouns and pronouns. Modern psychologists who study how we use language believe that thought is merely subvocal language. most, if not all, of the sentences we use are ones we have heard in the past and memorized. * we learn rules for making and interpreting sentences, rather than memorizing all the sentences we will ever use. all primates are capable of understanding and producing language. Noam Chomsky has called the rules that we learn for making and interpreting sentences ______ grammar. * transformational situational structural paradoxical Transformational grammar is * a system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure. a system for translating one language into another. an explanation for why people sometimes speak in spoonerisms. a method of communicating by signs and gestures. The sequence of words as they are actually spoken is called the ______ of language. transformational grammar situational grammar deep structure * surface structure The sentence "Never threaten someone with a chain saw" can mean at least two very different things. This sentence has one ______ and at least two ______. deep structure ... surface structures A * surface structure ... deep structures transformational grammar ... structural grammars structural grammar ... transformational grammars According to transformational grammar, what is the relationship between the deep structure of a sentence and its surface structure? Two sentences with the same surface structure must have the same deep structure. Two sentences with the same deep structure must have the same surface structure. Two sentences with the same deep structure cannot have the same surface structure. * Two sentences with the same deep structure may or may not have the same surface structure. When we listen to language we are more likely to remember the ______ than the ______. surface structure ... deep structure * deep structure ... surface structure B phonemes ... morphemes word orders ... underlying concepts The idea that our language determines the way we think is known as transformational grammar. the Stroop effect. the Muller-Lyer hypothesis. * the Whorf hypothesis. According to the Whorf hypothesis, children and adults share the same surface structure in language, but have different deep structures. children and adults share the same deep structure in language, but have different surface structures. * people who speak different languages think differently. we could, theoretically, figure out what someone is thinking by recording muscle movements in the throat. Eskimos have dozens more words for snow than English speakers do. This fact is clear evidence in support of the Whorf hypothesis. is clear evidence against the Whorf hypothesis. has been clearly documented, but neither supports nor refutes the Whorf hypothesis. * is the product of years of distortion and exaggeration, and is actually not true. Why do lecturers in the humanities say "um", "uh", and "er" more frequently during a lecture than lecturers in the natural sciences? * In the humanities there are more ways to express the same thought. Lecturers in the humanities tend to have lower levels of confidence and self-esteem. Lecturers in the sciences tend to be more articulate regardless of the topic they are discussing. Students in humanities lectures tend to challenge and intimidate the lecturer more. Who would be most likely to use the FEWEST number of "um"s, "uh"s, and "er"s when he or she spoke? An English professor giving a lecture on English literature. An English professor talking about graduate school policies. A Biology professor talking about graduate school policies. * A Biology professor giving a lecture on biology. In an experiment a cough or a tone replaced the first s in the word "legislatures" in a sentence the subjects were listening to. The results of this experiment support the idea that we first hear each letter separately, then combine them into words. * we hear words as a whole, rather than a group of separate sounds (letters). we interpret words independently of their context. we block from consciousness any word that does not make sense in a sentence. Deciding what you heard when you heard a word that contained an ambiguous sound (e.g., it could have been either "dent" or tent") is influenced by both the immediate context following the word and the delayed context (words that come much later in the sentence). * the immediate context following the word, but not the delayed context. the delayed context, but not the immediate context. only the sounds of the word itself, not the context surrounding those sounds. In an experiment subjects heard a tape-recorded sound that sounded halfway between "dent" and "tent." For which of the sentences below (if any) would the subjects be EQUALLY likely to report either "DENT" or "TENT"? "When the (*ent) in the fender was well camouflaged, we sold the car." "When the (*ent) in the forest was well camouflaged, we began our hike." * "When the (*ent) was noticed in the fender, we sold the car." None of the above: In the first and third sentences subjects would almost always report "DENT"; in the sentence in answer B they would almost always report "TENT." The context provided by words at the end of a sentence influences what you think words at the end of the sentence mean, but A does not affect the interpretation of the words at the beginning. * what you think words throughout the sentence mean. what you think the words at the beginning of the sentence mean, but does not affect the interpretation of the words at the end of the sentence. how you interpret (i.e., decide what you heard) words throughout the sentence when those words contained ambiguous sounds. If people are given a choice between two foods, one of which they are told is "good for you" and the other of which they are told is "not bad for you," what will happen? * Most will prefer the one they were told is "good for you." Most will prefer the one they were told is "not bad for you." Very few people will exhibit any preference for one over the other. Most people will refuse to eat either food. How many phonemes are in the word "lighthouse"? 1 2 B * 6 10 How many morphemes are in the word "lighthouse"? 1 * 2 6 10 Which of the following words has exactly one morpheme? cats * kitten don't cannot Each unit of meaning in a word is called a basic unit syntax phoneme * morpheme How many morphemes are in the word "thoughtfully"? 1 * 3 7 12 Under which of the following conditions, if any, could you move your eyes steadily, without jerky movements? * when following a moving object when scanning a stationary page of print both when following a moving object and when scanning a stationary page of print People always move their eyes in a jerky fashion and are never able to move them smoothly. A saccade is a word that has more than one deep structure. a person who sees words and letters backward. the contextual cue that determines how you interpret an ambiguous word that you hear. * an eye movement that occurs when you read. An average person reading an average page of text focuses on each point for about 200 milliseconds before jumping to the next focus point. The jumping motion of the eyes is called a ______. gambado variegation caracole * saccade Your visual processing becomes inactive during the Stroop effect. an algorithm. * a saccade. puberty. Your eyes make saccadic movements when you ______, and you ______ process most of the visual input during the saccade. follow a moving object ... do A follow a moving object ... do not scan a stationary object ... do * scan a stationary object ... do not An average person reading an average page of text focuses on each point for about 200 milliseconds before jumping to the next focus point. Which of the following would be most likely to INCREASE the time spent focused on a given word? if the word was short, like cat if the word was familiar, like girl if the person was an exceptionally good reader * if the word was difficult, like ghoul How many fixations per second does a typical reader have when reading an average page of text? 1 * 4 B 20 100 Compared to poor readers, good readers generally have fewer saccades. longer saccades. * shorter fixations. smaller vocabularies.