We transform information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system. This process is known as: * encoding. retrieval. storage. mnemonics. Memory is formally defined as: * the mental processes that enable us to acquire, retain, and retrieve information. a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of past experience. a mental category that is formed by learning the rules or features that define it. the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. Which of the following is NOT one of the fundamental processes involved in memory? encoding * feedback storage retrieval The ___________ is the process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time. Feedback Encoding * Storage Retrieval According to the stage model of memory: the capacity to remember changes with each age and stage of the lifespan. memory consists of the stages of maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, and clustering. memories evolve in stages from simple memories to complex memories. * memory involves the stages of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Selecting just a few aspects of all the environmental information that's being registered is a process that occurs in: short-term memory. * sensory memory. long-term memory working memory. Short-term memory is often referred to as _____ memory. * working sensory episodic source How long can information be stored in short-term memory? about two or three seconds about thirty minutes * about thirty seconds about a day As you are reading this question right now, you are consciously processing the meaning of the words in which stage of memory? sensory memory * short-term memory long-term memory episodic memory Participants in Sperling's experiment stared at a screen on which three rows of letters were flashed for just one-twentieth of a second. If Sperling sounded a high-pitched, medium-pitched, or low-pitched tone within _____, the person could recall the letters in the corresponding row. one minute thirty seconds three seconds * one-third of a second Sperling's classic experiment in which he briefly flashed three rows of letters on a screen immediately followed by a tone demonstrated that: subliminal perception can influence unconscious thought processes. auditory sensory memory lasts for three or four seconds. * visual sensory memory holds a great deal of information for about half a second. short-term memory can last for up to thirty seconds. Visual sensory memory is to auditory sensory memory as _____ is to _____. short-term memory; long-term memory echoic memory; iconic memory * iconic memory; echoic memory long-term memory; short-term memory Which stage of memory enables us to perceive the world around us as continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds? working memory short-term memory long-term memory * sensory memory As James watched Linda quickly wave the 4th of July sparkler back and forth, he noticed that the sparkler seemed to produce a trailing afterimage that faded within a split second. Which type of sensory memory can account for the quickly fading afterimage of the sparkler? echoic memory contextual memory facsimile memory * iconic memory Jenny asked Leonard where he had put the car keys. At first, Leonard thought he hadn't heard what she had asked, but a few seconds later, the question registered in his mind and he answered, "On the coffee table. "Which type of sensory memory can explain this phenomenon? * echoic memory iconic memory contextual memory semantic memory Which of the following statements about sensory memory is FALSE? Memory researchers believe there is a separate sensory memory for each sense. One function of sensory memory is to briefly store our sensory impressions so that they overlap slightly with one another. * Visual sensory memory holds information for a longer period of time than does auditory sensory memory. Visual sensory memory only lasts for about half a second. Auditory sensory memory: can last for up to thirty seconds. * lasts longer than visual sensory memory. is often referred to as iconic memory. processes episodic information. Which stage of memory can be thought of as the "workshop" of consciousness? * short-term memory auditory sensory memory visual sensory memory long-term memory About how long can you hold information in short-term memory? a few seconds * 30 seconds several minutes indefinitely How can the duration of short-term memory be increased? * Use maintenance rehearsal by repeating the information. Move the information into long-term memory. Move the information into sensory memory and then back into short-term memory. Use echoic and iconic memory to hold the memory longer. What happens to information in short-term memory that is not further processed or rehearsed? The information moves back into sensory memory. The information is transferred to working memory until it is ready to be processed further. The information is sent to long-term memory until it is ready to be further processed. * The information fades, or decays. Consider this sentence: "Sean was able to get the dog to come out from under the abandoned house by shaking a bag of dog food. "In order for you to consciously make sense out of the sentence, the information was processed in your: auditory sensory memory. * short-term memory. visual sensory memory. long-term memory. Information from _____ and from _____ is transferred to and processed in short-term memory. sensory memory; procedural memory long-term memory; procedural memory * sensory memory; long-term memory working memory; recognition memory Because she didn't have a piece of paper handy, Mary mentally repeated the long distance phone number over and over. Mary was trying to keep the information in: iconic memory. sensory memory. long-term memory. * short-term memory. At an auto parts store, Adam looked up the oil filter number in the parts catalog. Adam mentally repeated the number, PF3807A, until he found the correct oil filter for his car. Adam was using _____ to keep the information in his short-term memory. * maintenance rehearsal elaborative rehearsal the context effect the serial position effect The capacity of short-term memory is: about 3 items at one time. about 5 items at one time. * about 7 items at one time. unlimited. When short-term memory is filled to capacity, new information will: be ignored. cause proactive interference. * displace currently held information. cause repression. Jamie found the ISBN number of the book she wanted to order in the Books in Print Catalog. To remember the eleven-digit number, 19772552901, she mentally treated it like the year her best friend was born (1977) and her aunt's phone number (255-2901). Jamie was using the strategy of _____ to help her remember the ISBN number. state-dependent retrieval contextual cueing serial position * chunking In order for chunking to work, information must be processed by working memory before being sent to short-term memory. sensory memory information must be encoded differently than other types of information. * retrieval of long-term memory information is often necessary. the information must be processed a bit differently, with retrieval preceding storage. One strategy to increase the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory is to group related items together into a single unit. This strategy is called: state-dependent retrieval. * chunking. context effect. serial position effect. The amount of information that can be held in long-term memory: depends on the amount of maintenance rehearsal performed on the information. * seems to be limitless. is 7+2 bits of information. varies depending upon the type of information being stored. Conner vividly remembers details from earlier in the day when he was mistakenly pulled over by the highway patrolman and briefly arrested for armed robbery. Conner's memory of this event is stored in his: iconic memory. short-term memory. * long-term memory. sensory memory. Which of the following statements about long-term memory is FALSE? Information stored in long-term memory can potentially last a lifetime. The amount of information that can be held in long-term memory is limitless. * One effective strategy for encoding information into long-term memory is maintenance rehearsal. Semantic information is stored in long-term memory. Merely repeating information over and over is to _____ as focusing on the meaning of the information is to _____. self-reference effect; primacy effect primacy effect; recency effect elaborative rehearsal; maintenance rehearsal * maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal As she was reading the suggestions in the textbook on how to improve memory, Tanika thought of different ways she could apply the suggestions to herself. By applying the information to herself, Tanika was using _____ to help her encode and remember the information. * the self-reference effect contextual cues the serial position effect clustering Rather than simply memorizing key terms and concepts, Jeremy focused on the meaning of the information in the chapter and tried to generate examples of concepts from his own experiences. Jeremy was using _____ to help encode information into his long-term memory. contextual cues * elaborative rehearsal the serial position effect maintenance rehearsal If you have studied music, then you are familiar with the saying "Every good boy does fine" as a reference to the notes that are part of the musical staff. Using this saying is an example of: maintenance rehearsal. working memory. * elaborative rehearsal. chunking. To help remember the key terms used to describe Pavlov's conditioning a dog to salivate to a bell, Joshua vividly imagined that he was an experimental subject in Pavlov's laboratory and that Dr. Pavlov was conditioning him to salivate. Joshua was using _____ to help encode the information into long-term memory. the encoding specificity principle state-dependent retrieval * visual imagery maintenance rehearsal Which of the following techniques best enhances encoding for elaborative rehearsal? repeating the information over and over chunking the information turning the information into episodic information * using visual imagery with vivid images According to psychologists Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's levels of processing framework: information that is processed at the unconscious level is easy to bring to the conscious level with the right retrieval cue. a memory can feel like it is a new memory but it can actually be an unrecalled previous memory. long-term memory is organized as a complex network of associations that simultaneously operate at multiple levels of conscious awareness. * information that is processed at a "deep" level is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory than information processed at a "shallow" level. When Kerra studies for her college classes, she actively questions new information, thinks about its implications, and tries to generate her own examples based on her experiences. Using Craik and Lockhart's levels of processing terminology, Kerra is: * processing the information at a "deep" level so that it is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory. trying to counteract the encoding specificity principle. likely to inadvertently produce the misinformation effect. processing the information at a "shallow" level so that it is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory. Although she had not made one in years, Evelyn carefully folded the paper to make a paper airplane for her grandson. Evelyn's ability to perform this task is an example of which type of information stored in long-term memory? semantic information * procedural information episodic information contextual information How to perform different skills and actions is to _____ as knowledge of facts, concepts, and ideas is to _____. semantic information; contextual information episodic information; procedural information * procedural information; semantic information contextual information; episodic information Adam vividly remembers when he had to go to the emergency room for stitches. This is an example of which type of information stored in long-term memory? procedural information semantic information contextual information * episodic information Your general knowledge of words, facts, names, definitions, and other assorted trivia is a reflection of the storage of _____ in long-term memory. procedural information contextual information * semantic information episodic information When asked for the definition of a dependent variable, Mohammed replied, "It's the variable in an experiment that is measured for change. "Mohammed's answer reflects which type of information stored in long-term memory? procedural information * semantic information contextual information episodic information Explicit memory is: * information that can be consciously recollected. memory without awareness. memory that is easily retrieved. another name for procedural memory. Another name for explicit memory is _____ memory. nondeclarative unaware * declarative procedural As you take an exam, you actively sift through the information stored in your memory to come up with the correct answers. To come up with answers, you use your _____ memory. nondeclarative * declarative implicit cluster Implicit memory is: * memory that cannot be consciously recollected. declarative memory. limited to 7+2 chunks of information. the same as a semantic network. After being presented with a list of thirty random words, June was asked to recall as many words as she could. In recalling the words, June remembered groups of related words, such as harp, flute, and piano. June's pattern of answers during recall demonstrates: episodic information. * clustering. serial position effect. context effect. Which of the following statements about the organization of information in long-term memory is FALSE? People have a strong tendency to actively organize information in long-term memory. Different bits of information are logically linked or associated in long-term memory. * When presented with completely random words that have no obvious similarities or relationships, people recall the words in a purely random order rather than try to organize them in some way. Clustering is the tendency to organize items into related groups during recall. The semantic network model suggests that: semantic information is organized in a network, but episodic information is organized chronologically. when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely. distortions in memory can occur when the true source of the memory is forgotten. * units of information in long-term memory are organized in a complex system of associations. In one part of a study on the organization of information in long-term memory, participants said the first word that came to mind in response to the stimulus words "day," "woods," and "time. "Many participants responded "night," "trees," and "clock. "The participants' responses seem to support: interference theory. the notion of the serial position effect. mood congruence. * the semantic network model. The _________ is the process of accessing information stored in long-term memory. * Retrieval Encoding Storage Consolidation In telling the detective everything she could recall about when she went into the bank to make a deposit, Lynn got to the point that she could not recall any more details. At that point, Lynn was probably experiencing: retroactive interference. * retrieval cue failure. memory consolidation. state-dependent retrieval. During the short-answer essay part of the examination, Ralph was absolutely certain that he knew the definition of "biological preparedness" but he could not think of it. Ralph's inability to retrieve the information from his long-term memory was most likely due to: serial position effect. cryptomnesia. * retrieval cue failure. misinformation effect. Collette could not remember the name of the husband of a very important client. So, Collette began reciting the alphabet until a letter jarred her memory, and she could remember the name. The letter of the alphabet: served as a nondeclarative memory that caused retrieval of the information. is an example of the TOT experience. is a procedural memory cue. * served as a retrieval cue. The use of retrieval cues highlights an important point about long-term memory. Which of the following best describes this important point? Retrieval cues work better with recent long-term memories than with more deeply processed long-term memories. Long-term memory is routinely nondeclarative unless acted upon by retrieval cues. Short-term memory is no different than long-term memory except in the types of retrieval cues that are used to retrieve the information. * With the right retrieval cue, one can often access stored information that seemed to be completely inaccessible. The tip-of-the-tongue experience is a common example of: the misinformation effect. the serial position effect. cryptomnesia. * retrieval failure. Janette was absolutely certain that she knew the name of the fundamentalist religious group that was involved in the standoff with the FBI in Waco, Texas, but she could not think of the name of the group. This is an example of: * a tip-of-the-tongue experience. the misinformation effect. retroactive interference. cryptomnesia. Tip-of-the-tongue experiences underscore which of the following points? that retrieving information from long-term memory is an all-or-nothing process. that once a memory becomes blocked, it is impossible to retrieve it. that once a memory has decayed over time, it is impossible to retrieve it. * that information in long-term memory is organized and connected in relatively logical ways. This multiple-choice test question is a good example of using _____ to test long-term memory. * recognition free recall cued recall chunking Which of the following is NOT a common strategy to test for information in long-term memory? recognition * memory trace free recall cued recall Essay tests are to _____ as fill-in-the-blank and matching tests are to _____. recognition; free recall encoding specificity; state-dependent retrieval * free recall; cued recall schemas; source confusion While Ray was waiting for a prescription to be filled, he called Kate to see if she wanted him to pick up anything while he was at the grocery store. To his surprise, Kate rattled off ten different items she wanted him to buy. Ray forgot two items in the middle of the list. Ray's pattern of forgetting illustrates: encoding specificity. the tip-of-the-tongue experience. state-dependent retrieval. * the serial position effect. Although Erin had practiced the speech several times before class, she flubbed the middle part of the speech when she gave it in speech class. This pattern of forgetting illustrates: * the serial position effect. encoding specificity. memory consolidation. proactive interference. While trying to recall a list of items in correct order, the tendency to remember the first items in the list is called _____ while the tendency to remember the last items in the list is called _____. the recency effect; the primacy effect * the primacy effect; the recency effect proactive recall; retroactive recall retroactive recall; proactive recall The _____ is especially prominent when you have to engage in serial recall. semantic network depths of processing * primacy effect recency effect Tara is giving Jeff directions to her house so he can come to the party being held there tonight. Tara's ability to recall the directions in the proper order is an example of: * serial recall. the primacy effect. the recency effect. recognition memory. Which of the following is NOT an example of the encoding specificity principle? mood congruence context effect * memory consolidation state-dependent retrieval When the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, memory retrieval is more likely to be successful. That statement reflects the basic idea of: source confusion. the decay theory of forgetting. memory consolidation. * the encoding specificity principle. The critical factor in the context effect is the influence of: the person's mood at the time a memory is encoded and retrieved. drugs on a person's internal state. * external environmental cues in a particular situation. cryptomnesia. When she studies for her humanities class, Charlene always goes to the classroom where the humanities class is held. By studying in the same setting where she'll take the test, Charlene is trying to use _____ to her advantage. * the context effect state-dependent retrieval suppression mood congruence After living in Canada for many years, Yoko returned for a visit to Seoul, Korea. As she walked through the neighborhood in which she had grown up, her mind was flooded with memories of her childhood. The environmental cues that helped trigger Yoko's memories illustrate: state-dependent retrieval. * the context effect. source confusion. mood congruence. While Brian was drunk at an office party, he hid his car keys so they wouldn't get stolen. The next day, Brian couldn't recall where he hid the keys and had to get a new set of keys made for his car. When Brian got drunk again at a jazz festival three weeks later, he remembered where he hid his car keys. This example illustrates: source confusion. mood congruence. * state-dependent retrieval. the context effect. Which of the following statements about state-dependent retrieval is TRUE? State-dependent retrieval is a phenomenon in which a particular mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood. The critical factor in state-dependent retrieval is external environmental cues. * The state-dependent retrieval effect is very weak and limited to free-recall tests of memory. State-dependent retrieval is basically the same thing as the tip-of-the-tongue experience. The critical factor in state-dependent retrieval is the influence of: * drugs on a person's internal state. external environmental cues in a particular context. the person's mood at the time a memory is encoded and retrieved. misinformation. Research on mood-congruent retrieval has found that: recall of memories is greatly enhanced when the person is in the same drug state at the time the information is encoded and retrieved. * when moods match at the time of encoding and retrieval, recall of information is somewhat better than when encoding and retrieval moods don't match. the effect is much more pronounced for females than for males. the critical factor is the external environmental cues in the particular situation. Jean was extremely happy that she had finally passed the CPA exam and had landed a new job with a big accounting firm. As she was celebrating with family and friends, Jean recalled several other happy memories in her life. Jean's recall of other happy memories is an example of: the context effect. state-dependent retrieval. flashbulb memories. * mood congruence. Following the death of his father, Scott became extremely despondent for several weeks. During this time, Scott seemed to dwell on other unpleasant memories and other sad experiences in his life. Scott's recall of other sad memories is an example of: * mood congruence. mood-dependent retrieval. the context effect. state-dependent retrieval. Exactly three years ago today Denise was eating lunch with two friends at a restaurant when a very confused man came into the restaurant and began firing a gun at the pictures hanging on the walls. Denise remembers many details of that day, including the clothes she was wearing and what she ate for lunch. Denise has such clear memories of that day partly because those memories are characterized by a high degree of: mood congruence. * distinctiveness. contextual cues. state-dependent retrieval. Richard can recall very specific and vivid details of the day his son was born. Richard's memory of this personal event in his life is an example of what is called: state-dependent retrieval. echoic memory. * a flashbulb memory. iconic memory. In a study by psychologists Ulric Neisser and Nicole Harsch, students were asked to write down details of how they heard about the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger. What did Neisser and Harsch find three years later when they asked the same students for their recollections of that day? Just as the research on flashbulb memories would predict, the students had very reliable and accurate memories of the day the space shuttle exploded. Most of the students had only vague recollections of the day and were not confident in what they remembered. Just as the research on mood congruence would predict, the memories of the space shuttle explosion triggered memories of other sad events, mostly personal ones. * The students were highly confident in their recollections, but many of them remembered details that contradicted their original written accounts. What distinguishes flashbulb memories from ordinary memories? Flashbulb memories are always procedural memories. * People have a higher degree of confidence in the accuracy of flashbulb memories. Flashbulb memories occur more often when we experience retroactive interference. People who have flashbulb memories also have anterograde amnesia. Research on flashbulb memories has found that: the details of such memories are much more accurate over long periods of time than ordinary memories. such memories are completely resistant to memory consolidation. people are less confident in the accuracy of flashbulb memories. * flashbulb memories function just like ordinary memories. Which of the following statements is TRUE? Once stored in long-term memory, a memory is recalled exactly the same way each time it is remembered. People almost always remember how, when, and where they acquired a particular memory. * Although people usually remember the basic elements of an experience, specific details of the memory may become added, subtracted, or distorted over time. Unlike the normal memory retrieval process, memories retrieved under hypnosis are always accurate. It is said that memories are actively constructed. This means that: situational events occur in a series that lead to the construction of a memory for that situation. * information is actively organized and encoded rather than simply recorded. memories are created in a way that is most memorable for the person. retrieval cues are built into the memory for easier construction and access. Which of the following statements is FALSE? Schemas are useful in forming new memories because they allow you to quickly integrate new experiences into your existing knowledge base. The information you already have stored in long-term memory can potentially contribute to distortions in forming a new memory. Retrieving a memory involves the active process of reconstructing the memory. * Long-term memories cannot be distorted by information you acquire after the long-term memory has been formed. The term schema refers to: * an organized cluster of knowledge and information about an object, an event, a situation, or a concept. an organized plan to accomplish a specific goal. a group of neurons that link two or more memory areas in the brain. a memory-enhancing technique that is used during hypnosis to aid in the retrieval of repressed memories. In a research study described in your text, participants briefly sat in a psychology professor's office, then were taken to another room. When asked about the details of the professor's office, the research participants: accurately remembered almost all of the items in the psychologist's office. overestimated how long they had sat in the professor's office. * remembered items that were not actually in the office, but were consistent with their schemas of a professor's office. lied when asked whether they had looked at the test on the table next to where they were sitting. Which of the following is true about schemas? * Using schemas you already have stored in long-term memory allows you to quickly integrate new experiences into your knowledge base. Schemas can serve as important retrieval cues for information that has been retrieved but not stored. Schemas help to explain why depth of processing is a useful model for understanding the encoding and storage of information. Schemas can distort memories when recalling primacy information but do not distort memories of recency information. In a research study described in your text, participants read a brief story about Bob and Margie, a happy, compatible couple who were engaged to be married. When later tested for their recall of the story they had read, many of the research participants had fabricated or distorted details of the story. Why? because they remembered false memories that had been induced by hypnosis * because just after they read the story, the experimenter casually mentioned that Bob and Margie broke up and never got married because immediately before being tested for recall of the story, the experimenter told the research participants that Bob and Margie had been killed in an automobile accident because the research participants were saddened by the news of the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, which had occurred earlier in the day Lisa went to a wedding where folk music was played rather than the traditional wedding march when the bride walked down the aisle. Later, Lisa distinctly remembers humming along to "Here comes the bride. "Lisa's memory distortion is most probably due to: encoding failure. the context effect. * her schema for a typical wedding. state-dependent retrieval failure. Although he actually learned about Holland's high taxes from talking to someone at a recent party, Paul was absolutely convinced that he had heard about the high taxes in Holland on a radio talk show. This is an example of a false memory due to: * source confusion. the misinformation effect. trace decay. anterograde amnesia. The term source confusion refers to: confusing two words that sound alike. * a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten or confused with another memory. intentionally citing an incorrect source in a term paper. being unable to retrieve information that you know is stored in long-term memory. What is a false memory? It is a memory that has absolutely no basis in reality. It is a memory that a person creates to give the illusion of having a perfect memory. It is a memory that refers to inaccurate flashbulb memories that are filled with details from other memories. * It is a memory that is distorted or inaccurate but feels completely real. In the prologue to Chapter 6, psychologist Elizabeth Loftus erroneously remembered finding her mother's body in her uncle's swimming pool. What contributed to Loftus's false memory of this event? suggestions that were made to her during hypnosis encoding failure * confusion over the actual source of the memory anterograde amnesia Discovering a major problem at work, Doug called Joan and discussed the problem at length. A few minutes later, his coworker Gary called him, and Doug told Gary about the problem. Later, Doug told a friend that Joan had said that fixing the problem would cost ten thousand dollars. But when he looked at his handwritten notes of the two phone conversations, Doug discovered that Gary, not Joan, had actually made the remark. The contradiction between what really happened and Doug's memory can best be explained by: * source confusion. state-dependent retrieval. the context effect. motivated forgetting. What sort of evidence would NOT provide convincing support for the accuracy of a past-life memory? knowledge of everyday information from the particular time period * the vividness of the memory and the person's conviction that the memory is accurate information that can be verified through valid historical records information that could not be acquired from a contemporary source The term cryptomnesia refers to: a condition in which a person convincingly pretends to have amnesia. a condition in which a person thinks that he has amnesia but actually does not. * a memory distortion in which a seemingly "new" memory is actually based on a preexisting but unrecalled memory of previous knowledge or experience. the process of repressing disturbing memories from consciousness. One of the most famous cases of a past life remembered under hypnosis involved a woman who claimed to remember her past life in Ireland as "Bridey Murphy. "When the case was investigated, it turned out that: all of the woman's memories were confirmed by historical records. the hypnotist had intentionally created false reincarnation memories. the woman was lying and had never been hypnotized. * the woman had grown up across the street from an Irish woman named "Bridey Murphy" who had told her many stories about everyday life in Ireland. According to the information discussed in the box "Remembering Past Lives," which of the following factors seems to have played a role in the different examples of memories of past lives? * cryptomnesia infantile amnesia encoding failure retrograde amnesia Identify the psychologist who is a leading expert in the field of memory research and eyewitness testimony. George Sperling * Elizabeth Loftus Richard Thompson Karl Lashley In a study by Elizabeth Loftus, subjects watched a film of an automobile accident, then answered a series of questions, including one asking them to estimate the speed of the cars. What factor affected the subjects' estimate of how fast the cars in the film were traveling? whether the driver of the car was male or female whether they had ever been an eyewitness to an auto accident * whether the word contacted, hit, bumped, collided, or smashed was used in the question whether the researcher was friendly or rude In a study by Elizabeth Loftus, subjects watched a film of an automobile accident, then answered a series of questions, including one asking them to estimate the speed of the cars. Which subjects gave the highest speed estimates? * the subjects who were asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed each other?" the subjects who had received a speeding ticket in the last two years the subjects who were told that both drivers were male teenagers the subjects who were exposed to the rude experimenter Research by psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has shown that: eyewitness testimony is highly accurate. * even when a person has witnessed an event firsthand, it is relatively easy to distort the person's memory of the event. children and the elderly are most prone to memory distortions. most people forget the specific details of a crime within six months. The "misinformation effect" refers to: political propaganda during election campaigns. * a phenomenon in which existing memories are distorted by exposing people to misleading information. a memory distortion caused by the context effect. creating a false, but vivid, flashbulb memory. It was _____ who said, "Misleading information can turn a lie into memory's truth. It can cause people to believe that they saw things that never really existed, or that they saw things differently from the way things actually were. It can make people confident about these false memories and also, apparently, impair earlier recollections. Once adopted, the newly created memories can be believed as strongly as genuine memories." Herman Ebbinghaus Karl Lashley * Elizabeth Loftus Richard F. Thompson In a study by Elizabeth Loftus, subjects watched a film of a burglary in which the thief used a hammer to break the lock on the victim's door. The subjects then read a written account of the burglary that was exactly the same except that a screwdriver was used to break the lock. When asked how the burglar had broken the lock, the majority of the subjects: were unsure as to whether a hammer or a screwdriver had been used. could not remember how the burglar entered the house. accurately reported that the burglar had used a hammer. * confidently reported that the burglar had used a screwdriver. Which of the following factors did NOT play a role in the misidentification of Father Pagano as an armed robber by seven eyewitnesses? the misinformation effect schema distortion source confusion * mood congruence In a study of more than a thousand convictions in which the people turned out to be innocent of the crime, the largest factor leading to the false convictions was: anterograde amnesia. hypnotically induced false memories. state-dependent retrieval errors. * eyewitness error. Which of the following statements is FALSE? * It is extremely difficult to distort a memory once it has been stored in long-term memory. False memories can feel just as real as genuine memories. Some memories can become distorted in psychologically adaptive ways. Asking neutral rather than leading questions can help prevent the misinformation effect. The inability to recall information that was previously available to memory is called: encoding failure. * forgetting. the misinformation effect. source confusion. Identify the psychologist who pioneered the scientific study of forgetting. * Hermann Ebbinghaus Elizabeth Loftus George Sperling Karl Lashley Why were nonsense syllables used in the earliest studies of forgetting? so that the stimulus materials were simple enough that even children could read and remember them so that cross-cultural comparisons of memory could be investigated using speakers of different languages * so that the material did not have preexisting associations in memory to reduce retroactive interference The graphic representation of the results of Ebbinghaus's research is called the: memory curve. retroactive interference effect. misinformation effect. * forgetting curve. According to Ebbinghaus's research: encoding failure is the chief cause of most forgetting. all new information will eventually be forgotten. * the most rapid forgetting of new material occurs relatively soon after the material is originally learned. memories are distributed throughout the brain. Based on his research, Ebbinghaus found that: about 80 percent of new information is retained in memory and stable over time. * the amount of forgetting eventually levels off and that the memories that remain are stable over time. memories for a classically conditioned response are distributed throughout the brain. the primary cause of forgetting is repression. Mike began studying for his exam the night before the test, reading his textbook chapter for the first time. Ebbinghaus would predict that: * Mike would rapidly forget most of the material that he learned. Mike would remember most of the new material for several months, then rapidly forget most of it. Mike would gradually forget the new material over a period of several months. Mike's memory of the new material would remain remarkably stable for a lengthy period of time. Which of the following is NOT a possible cause of forgetting described in your textbook? * consolidation decay encoding failure interference On a visit to his mother's home, Steve's mother introduced him to her new next-door neighbor. After chatting with the neighbor for a few minutes, Steve realized that he could not remember the new neighbor's name. The MOST likely explanation for Steve's forgetting the neighbor's name is: proactive interference. retroactive interference. * encoding failure. decay. At a loud party, Kimberly met so many new people that when she ran into one of her new acquaintances on campus the next day she was unable to remember his name. The MOST likely explanation for her forgetting the name of her new acquaintance is: source confusion. * interference theory. mood congruence theory. the misinformation effect. Forgetting that is caused by "encoding failure" refers to forgetting information that: has been replaced or interfered with by a previous memory. has been destroyed through the misinformation effect. cannot be retrieved because it has undergone the process of decay. * cannot be retrieved because it was never encoded into long-term memory in the first place. If you cannot remember whose picture is on a quarter, the reason is most likely: interference. * encoding failure. decay. misinformation. The more _____ information is in two memories, the more likely that _____ will occur. similar; repression different; repression different; interference * similar; interference When old memories interfere with a new memory, _____ is said to have occurred. * proactive interference retroactive interference encoding failure misinformation effect When a new memory interferes with an old memory, _____ is said to have occurred. proactive interference * retroactive interference encoding failure suppression As Rick was filling out the loan application, he couldn't remember his previous address even though he had lived there for five years. Rick's memory of his current address was interfering with his memory of his old address, which is an example of: encoding failure. the misinformation effect. proactive interference. * retroactive interference. Whenever Yvonne tried to recall her new phone number, she kept getting it mixed up with her old phone number. Yvonne's failure to remember her new phone number is probably due to: encoding failure. the misinformation effect. * proactive interference. retroactive interference. Forgetting a painful or embarrassing memory because we don't want to remember the information is called: * motivated forgetting. motivated interference. encoding failure. the desirability effect. The _______ is due to deliberate forgetting as _____ is due to unconscious forgetting. Motivated forgetting; retrieval failure * Suppression; repression Repression; suppression Retrieval failure; motivated Marcy was stood up by her date for the senior prom. She tried not to dwell on the painful experience, and after a few years she could remember only a few details of that humiliating evening. Marcy's deliberate attempt to forget that evening is an example of: interference. decay. repression. * suppression. Which is the best explanation for encoding failure? The information was not processed beyond the sensory memory stage. Old information interferes with one's ability to process novel information * The information enters one's short-term memory, but it is never encoded into long-term memory. The information was stored in working memory, but it was then repressed in long-term memory. Of the following factors, which is the most likely to cause the greatest interference? amount of information under what conditions the information was memorized when the different bits of the information were memorized * similarity of information According to your textbook, the misinformation effect may be a form of: * retroactive interference. motivated forgetting. repression. proactive interference. "But, Betty Sue, I DO love you," said Jaron. With that statement, Jaron received the hardest slap in the face he had ever felt. "My name is Mary Ann, not Betty Sue. That was your old girlfriend. And I don't love you," screamed Mary Ann after hitting Jaron. Poor Jaron, _____ got him into a lot of trouble. motivated forgetting * proactive interference suppression retroactive interference Ralph couldn't remember any of his childhood until he went for psychotherapy to treat his anxiety disorder. After just a few sessions, Ralph started remembering the painful incidents in his childhood in which he was beaten and made to feel ashamed. Ralph had difficulty remembering his childhood probably because of: retroactive interference. proactive interference. * motivated forgetting. encoding failure. Because it was too painful to think about how his marriage had fallen apart due to his wife's infidelity, Russell decided that he was not going to remember anything about his marriage. Russell is trying to use _____, a form of motivated forgetting, to help ease his pain. * suppression repression decay blocking Which type of forgetting is associated with Sigmund Freud? suppression * repression proactive interference decay Mark took three years of Spanish in high school and two years of Spanish in college. Ten years after graduating from college, Mark had an opportunity to travel to Mexico. While there, he was not able to converse in Spanish very well despite his years of training while in school. What might best account for Mark's inability to speak Spanish? retroactive inhibition repression * decay theory motivated forgetting Ned's parents got divorced when he was seven years old. Ned's older sister vividly remembers the frequent, loud screaming matches between her mother and father in the weeks prior to the divorce, but Ned has no memories of his parents ever fighting. That Ned has completely blocked conscious awareness of those painful memories is an example of: encoding failure. proactive interference. * repression. memory decay. According to Freud, _____ memories remain unconscious yet are still capable of influencing behavior and personality. * repressed suppressed motivated decayed According to _____ theory, we forget memories because we don't use them and they simply fade away over time as a matter of normal brain processes. * decay interference neuronal circuit psychoanalytic Repressed memory therapy, or recovery therapy, refers to: * psychotherapy that encourages the recall of supposedly repressed memories from childhood, usually of physical or sexual abuse. a treatment for memory problems in people suffering from Alzheimer's disease or other diseases that cause memory loss. the use of special techniques to repress unpleasant memories to help people recover from traumatic events. a therapeutic technique that counteracts the effects of memory consolidation. Although the concept of repressed memories is controversial, there is general agreement among psychologists that: repressed memories recovered through hypnosis are accurate. people may experience amnesia for some of the details of a single traumatic event, but they are unlikely to repress all memories of repeated incidents of abuse. * when people experience repeated incidents of abuse, they are more likely to completely repress all memories of the experiences. survivors of traumatic incidents are rarely able to recall details about the events. Regarding the text discussion of the recovery of repressed memories, which of the following statements is FALSE? False memories can seem just as vivid, detailed, and accurate as real memories. Most people who are known to have survived a traumatic event are troubled by recurring memories, thoughts, and flashbacks of the traumatic event. * The use of hypnosis to aid recall greatly increases the accuracy of the memories that are reported. Of adults who remember being sexually abused as a child, most never reported the incident to authorities. The recovery of "repressed" memories during psychotherapy is controversial because of the: ethical concerns for uncovering the painful memories. legal implications of recovering memories of criminal activities. psychological implications for the person whose memories are recovered. * methods used to help people recover repressed memories. Critics of recovered, repressed memories argue that: * the supposedly "recovered" memories are actually false memories produced by the suggestions of well-intentioned but misguided therapists. the methods used to uncover these repressed memories may be acceptable but too few therapists are trained appropriately in using the techniques for repressed memory therapy. repressed memories are too harmful to uncover for those people who have them. repressed memories are merely memories that people choose to repress. There are a number of key points to remember in weighing the claims of repressed memory therapy. One of these is: repressed memories are actually instances of motivated forgetting. * having confidence in a memory is no guarantee that a memory is accurate. it is important to consider the motivations of the therapists who recover these memories. the phenomenon of repressed memories is actually a myth created by people who are attention-seekers. The decay theory of forgetting: has more research supporting it than the other theories of forgetting. * is contradicted by the fact that the right retrieval cue can sometimes trigger the recall of information or events experienced long ago. has proven useful in explaining how anterograde amnesia occurs. has proven useful in understanding why infantile amnesia occurs. In the 1920s, psychologist Karl Lashley: began a longitudinal study on the memory of high school students for the words and phrases they had learned in Spanish class. began the first systematic study of forgetting using nonsense syllables. measured the duration of visual sensory memory. * began searching for the brain changes associated with the formation of a long-term memory. Which psychologist trained a rat to run a maze, then tried to identify the location of the memory by removing a tiny portion of the rat's brain? * Karl Lashley Elizabeth Loftus Hermann Ebbinghaus Richard F. Thompson What is the term for the brain changes associated with the formation of a long-term memory? clustering * the memory trace or engram a schema the memory episode or trigram Which of the following statements about Karl Lashley is TRUE? Lashley's research with sea snails provided evidence that forming a new memory involves changes in the function and structure of neurons. * Lashley's research with rats eventually led him to the conclusion that memories are distributed throughout the brain. Lashley's research confirmed the pattern of forgetting first identified by Ebbinghaus. Lashley's research with rabbits demonstrated that the memory for the classically conditioned response was localized in a specific brain area. Which psychologist searched for the brain location of a classically conditioned eyeblink response in rabbits? Elizabeth Loftus Karl Lashley * Richard Thompson Eric Kandel According to the discussion in your text, why did Karl Lashley fail to find evidence that a particular memory is localized in a specific brain area? because the brain and nervous system of sea snails was not complex enough for a localized memory to be formed because PET scans show global brain activity rather than changes in individual neurons * because the behavior that he studied involved a complex set of interrelated memories that existed in different brain areas because he used rabbits rather than dogs Research by psychologist Richard F. Thompson and his colleagues demonstrated that the: function and structure of neurons change in response to the formation of new memories. hippocampus is critical for the formation of new memories. hippocampus does not mature until the developing infant is about two years old. * memory for a classically conditioned eyeblink response was localized in a rabbit's cerebellum. Guiding Karl Lashley's initial research on memory was his belief that memory: could reside outside of the brain in specific organs or tissues, such as muscles. was widely distributed throughout the cerebellum. * was localized or stored in a specific brain area. was initially repressed and then slowly recovered into consciousness. Why had Karl Lashley failed in uncovering the memory site for maze running in rats? Memory could not be studied with the relatively crude and simplistic methods that Lashley used. Rats' simplistic nervous systems do not lend themselves well to research on memories of such complex behaviors as maze running. Lashley was looking in the cerebral cortex for the memory site when he should have been looking in the cerebellum. * A rat's memory for maze running is not a single memory but a complex set of interrelated memories involving information from multiple senses. To help understand how neurons change in response to the formation of a new memory, researchers have extensively studied: * the sea snail Aplysia. undergraduate psychology students. people who have sustained brain injuries. a man known by the initials H. M. When you combine the memory research findings of Lashley and Thompson, they suggest that: memories are all widely distributed throughout the brain. memories are localized in a specific region of the brain but not in a specific location. * simple memories may be localized in specific areas whereas complex memories seem to be distributed throughout the brain. complex memories reside in a very specific region of the brain that regulates complex memories. Research with the sea snail Aplysia has demonstrated that: memories are localized in the cerebellum. * both the function and structure of neurons change in response to the formation of a new memory. memory consolidation can be disrupted by an electric shock. state-dependent retrieval and retrograde amnesia can be explained in the same way. When the sea snail Aplysia acquires a new memory of a classically conditioned gill withdrawal reflex, which of the following does NOT occur? There is an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters produced by the neurons involved in the memory circuit. There is an increase in the number of interconnecting branches between the neurons involved in the memory circuit. * There is an increase in the number of neurons involved in the memory circuit. There is an increase in the number of synapses between the neurons involved in the memory circuit. Some generalizations regarding the biological basis of memory are possible from the research with Aplysia. One such generalization is that: * functional and structural changes in specific neurons create a memory circuit in the brain. the neurotransmitters involved in a memory are the same as those that are involved in the behavior for which there is that memory. neural memory circuits are widely distributed throughout the nervous systems of the Aplysia and people. No good generalizations can really be made from the research with Aplysia since Aplysia have such simplistic nervous systems relative to the nervous systems of humans. Head injuries from automobile and motorcycle accidents are most likely to produce: * retrograde amnesia. anterograde amnesia. proactive interference. memory consolidation. The inability to remember past events is to _____ as the inability to form new memories is to _____. anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia * retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia proactive interference; retroactive interference the cerebellum; memory consolidation According to the discussion in the text, memories of the events immediately preceding a concussion or head injury are often forgotten because the injury: causes temporary dementia. causes retroactive interference to occur. * disrupts the process of memory consolidation. creates cryptomnesia. During an intense tennis game, Robert fell backwards and sustained a concussion when his head hit the cement surface. Later in the emergency room, Robert couldn't remember falling or who was ahead in the tennis game. The loss of his memories for that information occurred because the concussion: produced temporary dementia. caused retroactive interference to occur. * disrupted the process of memory consolidation. created anterograde amnesia. The gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories into stable, enduring memory codes is termed: the memory trace. memory localization. memory distribution. * memory consolidation. Which of the following is a good analogy for the process of memory consolidation? * waiting for wet cement to gradually set and harden the instantaneous conduction of electricity through a wire the gradual fading of the words and images on a billboard the evaporation of heated water The famous patient known as H. M. suffered from an extreme case of: memory consolidation. * anterograde amnesia. retrograde amnesia. proactive amnesia. Justin was involved in an automobile accident and sustained a serious injury to his head. When asked about the accident, Justin could not remember what happened or how the accident occurred. Justin seems to be suffering from: cryptomnesia. * retrograde amnesia. temporary dementia. anterograde amnesia. People with anterograde amnesia: would have difficulty remembering the accident that led to their amnesia. cannot use their working memories effectively to follow instructions. have problems with vocabulary and language skills but would not have difficulties with reading comprehension. * would laugh at the same joke repeated every ten minutes as if it was the first time they had heard the joke. When the patient known as H. M. was a young man, doctors surgically removed his _____ in an attempt to treat his epileptic seizures. cerebellum amygdala * hippocampus hypothalamus Which of the following statements about the famous patient known as H. M. is FALSE? H. M. can use his short-term memory. H. M. can retrieve long-term memories. * H. M. can form new long-term episodic memories. H. M. can form new long-term procedural memories. Which type of memories is affected by anterograde amnesia? * explicit memories implicit memories working memories sensory memories Because of the famous case of the patient known as H. M., it is known that _____ plays a critical role in _____. memory consolidation; short-term memory the hippocampus; short-term memory the cerebellum; the retrieval of long-term memories * the hippocampus; encoding new episodic memories What role, if any, does the prefrontal cortex play in memory? The prefrontal cortex seems to encode emotional qualities associated with particular memories. * The prefrontal cortex seems to be responsible for the ability to remember the order of information. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for associating memories that involve different senses. The prefrontal cortex is not involved in memory at all. The brain structure called the _____ seems to be involved in encoding the emotional aspects of memories and associating memories that involve different senses. * amygdala hippocampus cerebellum hypothalamus Which part of the nervous system has NOT been shown to be involved in memory tasks? the frontal cortex the amygdala the cerebellum * All of these areas have been shown to be involved in memory tasks. When the amygdala is removed, a monkey: loses the ability to encode new long-term memories. * loses its fear of snakes and other natural predators. has complete amnesia for previously learned classically conditioned responses. shows the classic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. What is the most common cause of senile dementia? retrograde amnesia anterograde amnesia * Alzheimer's disease infantile amnesia As Alzheimer's disease becomes progressively worse, what can be expected? The person may forget to lock the front door. The person will return to the food store because he/she forgot something. * The person becomes unable to remember the names of family members. The person may get lost while driving through an unfamiliar area of a city. In the "Culture and Human Behavior" box, psychologists Becca Levy and Ellen Langer propose that: * cultural expectations about aging can affect memory abilities in the elderly. the decline of memory ability is part of the natural biological aging process that is seen across cultures. Alzheimer's disease is a symptom of highly technological cultures and is less evident in more primitive cultures. older people in mainland China do not age as rapidly and thus do not show memory problems. In the "Culture and Human Behavior" box, psychologists Becca Levy and Ellen Langer studied different groups of older people. Which group performed the best on memory tasks? the elderly group from the United States, where views of the elderly are fairly positive * the group from China, where the culture values the elderly the hearing-impaired Americans, because they are not affected by cultural diversity all of the groups performed about the same, supporting the natural decline in memory with age In the "Culture and Human Behavior" box, psychologists Becca Levy and Ellen Langer studied different groups of older people. They concluded that: dementia is a progressive disease process that affects all cultural groups the same way. the biological mechanisms of memory seem to be the same across a number of different cultures. memory is stable up until later old age, after which memory decreases dramatically. * the negative stereotypes about aging in America may function as a self-fulfilling prophecy. Spacing your study sessions is to _____ as cramming the night before is to _____. elaborative rehearsal; maintenance rehearsal massed practice; distributed practice serial position effect; proactive interference * distributed practice; massed practice Jill is serious about wanting to improve her memory for the information she is studying in her college classes. Which of the following will NOT enhance Jill's ability to remember information? outlining lecture or chapter information spacing her study sessions * using maintenance rehearsal to memorize key terms using text photographs and illustrations to help create visual memories of information According to the Application section, which of the following helps the process of consolidating new memories? * sleep alcohol background noise massed practice According to the Application section on making memories last: * it is important to avoid distracting stimuli that may compete for your attention while studying. using television as a background stimulus can serve as a stimulus cue for remembering studied material. reading material fast is a good way to understand the overall nature of the information to be studied. massed practice works better than distributed practice for certain subjects that are studied. Wynn has been studying for his audiology exam by breaking up each chapter into manageable sections and then learning key information from each section at a time. According to the Applications section of your text, Wynn is using which technique to enhance his memory? elaborative rehearsal * reduce interference within a topic counteract the serial position effect use contextual cues to jog memory Raymond is determined to do well on his final exams, and decides to apply what he has learned about elaborative rehearsal to his own studying strategies. Which of the following suggestions should he NOT implement? try to create vivid visual images of terms and concepts explain the material in his own words to a friend relate the information to material that he already knows, including examples from his own life * repeat each key term and definition at least ten times For her anatomy and physiology class, Chelsea has to learn a list of the twelve cranial nerves in correct order. Which of the following suggestions would help her counteract the serial position effect? spend extra time rehearsing the first several items on the list spend extra time rehearsing the last several items on the list * spend extra time rehearsing the items in the middle of the list spend extra time rehearsing the first several items and last several items on the list While Ellen was taking a test, she blocked on remembering a specific piece of information that she studied. According to the Application section, Ellen might be able to jog the blocked memory by: taking one or two deep breaths. * imagining the surroundings in which she learned the information. listening to background noise. using massed practice. One important memory process is encoding, or the transforming of information into a form that can be retained by the memory system. * True False The stage model of memory is universally accepted as the model that describes exactly how human memory works. True * False In the stage model of memory, the first stage is called sensory memory. * True False The stage model of memory consists of three distinct stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. True * False Sensory memory registers a limited amount of information from the environment but holds it for up to 30 seconds. True * False With sensory memory, one pays attention to just a few aspects of the environmental information that is being registered. * True False Sensory memory is also called working memory. True * False Short-term memory can store information for about 30 seconds. * True False Working memory is what most people typically think of as memory. True * False The transfer of information between short-term and long-term memory goes both ways, from short-term memory to long-term memory and from long-term memory to short-term memory. * True False The active, working memory system that holds all of the information that you are currently thinking about is called short-term memory. * True False The research of psychologist George Sperling demonstrated that the maximum duration of short-term memory is about thirty seconds. True * False Visual sensory memory only lasts for about half a second while auditory sensory memory lasts for a few seconds. * True False The capacity of short-term memory is virtually limitless. True * False The maximum duration of short-term memory is about thirty seconds, unless the information is actively rehearsed. * True False If information in short-term memory is not actively rehearsed, the information is transferred to long-term memory. True * False Iconic memory is the short-term memory for vision. True * False Sensory memory allows you to hear a series of musical notes as a melody. * True False Because of the storage capacity of short-term memory, it easy to remember a phone number with its area code. * True False Darryl looks up a phone number and then continues to repeat the number until he has dialed it. This is an example of maintenance rehearsal. * True False When your short-term memory store is filled to capacity, new information displaces currently held Information. * True False Chunking is one way of increasing the storage capacity for sensory memory. True * False When Travis got to his 9 o'clock class, another student asked Travis what had been discussed in the 8 o'clock history class. Travis was able to answer because the information was stored in his long-term memory. * True False Maintenance rehearsal is a very effective strategy for encoding information into long-term memory. True * False Long-term memory storage capacity seems to be limitless. * True False Maintenance rehearsal focuses on the meaning of information and is useful for maintaining information in long-term memory. True * False Applying information to your self, the self-reference effect, improves your memory for information. * True False According to the levels of processing framework proposed by psychologists Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart, maintenance rehearsal would represent "shallow" processing whereas elaborative rehearsal would represent "deep" processing. * True False Although there is ample evidence that information in long-term memory is clustered and associated, memory researchers still do not completely understand how information is organized in long-term memory. * True False Procedural information is to long-term memories of how to perform skills as episodic memory is to long-term memories of events. * True False The basic idea of the semantic network model is that activating one concept, such as the word "dog," can trigger the activation of other concepts that are associated with it, such as the words "cat," "hound," or "pound." * True False Semantic information is information kept in short-term memory just long enough to be processed before being moved into long-term memory. True * False Explicit memory is to awareness as implicit memory is to without awareness. * True False Clustering means organizing items into related groups during recall of short-term memory information. True * False Retrieval cue failure is experienced when particular information is no longer stored in long-term memory. True * False In his eighth-grade history class, Ted had to recite Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Ted did well at the beginning and end of the Address, but flubbed some sentences in the middle. This example illustrates the serial position effect. * True False Marcia says, "Oh, I know that actor's name. I just can't remember it right now. "Marcia seems to be encountering the tip-of-the-tongue experience. * True False Cued recall is a memory measurement that involves identifying an item of information from several possible choices. True * False Josh is sent to the store by his mother to pick up a number of grocery items. Upon arriving home, Josh's mother notices that Josh did not buy the last few items that she mentioned to him. Josh's forgetfulness for those last few items is an example of the recency effect. True * False The encoding specificity principle refers to the recall of very specific images or details surrounding a vivid, rare, or significant personal event, such as the day you graduated from high school. True * False When subjects learn information while under the influence of a drug, such as alcohol or marijuana, their ability to remember the information on recognition or cued-recall memory tests is much better if they are under the influence of the same drug than if they are not. True * False The memory-enhancing effects of state-dependent retrieval and mood-dependent retrieval are very strong. True * False Unique, different, or unusual events are easier to retrieve from memory because they are characterized by a high degree of distinctiveness. * True False According to the context effect, if you drink several cups of coffee while studying for an exam, you should drink several cups of coffee when you go to take the exam. * True False The essence of mood congruence is that if you are in a depressed mood, you are more likely to recall happy memories. True * False The mood-congruence effect has been shown to decrease depressive symptoms in depressed people. True * False Research has consistently shown that the accuracy of flashbulb memories is unaffected by the passage of time, just like the details of a photograph. True * False Every new memory that a person forms is actively constructed rather than simply recorded. * True False In the study in which participants were asked to recall details about the psychology professor's office, many participants erroneously remembered objects that were not in the office but that did fit their schema of a typical professor's office. * True False Schemas help organize information in sensory memory. True * False Source confusion is a common cause of false memories. * True False There is good reason to believe that many reincarnation stories are examples of cryptomnesia. * True False The housewife who reported a past life as "Bridey Murphy" under hypnosis was probably experiencing source confusion. * True False Research has consistently shown that the information recalled by eyewitnesses to a crime is typically extremely accurate. True * False Seven eyewitnesses correctly identified Father Bernard Pagano as the "Gentleman Bandit." True * False New information can distort the recollection of information that is already stored in long-term memory. * True False Long-term memory functions much like a tape recorder or camera; it captures, stores, and maintains a perfect record of everything that a person experiences. True * False Memory distortions can sometimes be psychologically beneficial. * True False While forgetting important information can create problems, not being able to forget anything would also create problems. * True False In his pioneering studies of forgetting, Ebbinghaus's first research subjects were one hundred psychology students at a large German university. True * False As a general rule, the longer people take to memorize new information, the longer they will retain the information. * True False After new information is learned, the general pattern of forgetting is rapid forgetting of some information relatively soon after the original learning. This is followed by a lengthy period in which the information that is not forgotten is maintained in long-term memory. * True False If you were to apply the research on forgetting to studying for exams in college, you would try to learn as much material in as short a time as possible. True * False The misinformation effect can be explained as a form of retroactive interference. * True False Amber walked in her front door and put her textbook down under her coat, but ten minutes later she was unable to find her textbook. Proactive interference is the most likely explanation for Amber's memory lapse. True * False Contemporary psychologists are virtually unanimous that the repression of painful memories, especially memories of sexual abuse in childhood, is the most common cause of psychological disorders. True * False Encoding failure explains why information does not pass from sensory memory to short-term memory. True * False Jake has always driven a car with a standard transmission. His new car has an automatic transmission but Jake still pushes his left foot down in search of a clutch. This is an example of retroactive interference. True * False Suppression is to consciously forgetting as repression is to unconsciously forgetting. * True False Hans was exposed to horrible physical abuse as a child but has no recollection of such horrors as an adult. Freud would refer to Hans's lack of memory as suppression. True * False Decay theory simply states that we forget memories because we don't use them. * True False Information stored in long-term memory naturally decays over time. True * False Therapy that involves the recovery of so-called repressed memories through hypnosis and other suggestive techniques can produce false memories that feel just as real as authentic memories. * True False Karl Lashley believed that the engram, or memory trace, was stored in a particular area of the brain. * True False After many years of research, Karl Lashley concluded that memories were distributed throughout the brain rather than stored in a particular area. * True False Richard Thompson discovered that the memory trace of a simple conditioned reflex in a rabbit was, as Lashley had concluded, distributed throughout the brain. True * False Contemporary research has shown that complex memories are both localized in particular brain areas and distributed throughout the brain. * True False Richard Thompson proposed that memories were stored in specific locations in the brain and referred to these sites as engrams. True * False Most memories are interrelated memories, involving information from multiple senses. * True False PET scans have confirmed that performing a complex memory task involves only a single region of the brain, the hippocampus. True * False Memory formation involves functional and structural changes in the neurons of lower animals such as Aplysia, but the same changes have not been found in birds or mammals. True * False When Aplysia learns a simple, classically conditioned response, structural and functional changes in the three neurons involved create a memory circuit that eventually becomes established as a long-term memory. * True False People who suffer from retrograde amnesia are unable to form new episodic memories. True * False For long-term memories to become permanent and stable over time, they must undergo a physical process called consolidation. * True False Of all the regions of the brain, the cerebellum plays the most critical role in the encoding of new episodic memories and the transfer of episodic memories from short-term to long-term memory. True * False The anterograde amnesia experienced by H. M. was the result of surgery that removed H. M.'s amygdala. True * False The amygdala is involved in processing memories with emotional and sensory qualities. * True False The prefrontal cortex seems to play an important memory role for the order of information. * True False Neuroscientists today believe that brain processes play a very limited role in the encoding and storage of new memories. True * False Levy and Langor have demonstrated that cultural beliefs affect memory abilities in the elderly. * True False Negative stereotypes about aging and memory that are common in mainstream America may play a significant role in determining the degree of memory loss that people experience in old age. * True False Using visual imagery is a good way to improve memory, but it is not as effective as repeating the information in your head over and over. True * False Massed practice, or "cramming," the night before a test is one of the most effective ways to study and learn new material. True * False You will remember new material better if you actively think about the material, make associations to your own experiences, and come up with new examples of your own. * True False Explaining new material that you are learning out loud to others is an effective way of remembering the material. * True False