Personality is defined as: a person's skill in making others feel good about themselves. the socially desirable characteristics that a person typically displays. the way people perceive a particular person. * an individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality theories: * attempt to explain how and why people are similar and different. focus on explaining the development of a specific personality characteristic, such as shyness. emphasize that human nature is fundamentally bad. are impossible to test scientifically. The emphasis on unconscious mental processes is to _____ as the emphasis on learning and conscious cognitive processes is to _____. the trait perspective; the humanistic perspective * the psychoanalytic perspective; the social cognitive perspective the humanistic perspective; the psychoanalytic perspective the social cognitive perspective; the trait perspective Dr. Livingston maintains that unconscious mental processes and early childhood experiences are critical in the formation of personality. Dr. Livingston's beliefs reflect the _____ perspective of personality. trait social cognitive * psychoanalytic humanistic Carter believes that people are basically good and that each person will naturally strive to fulfill his or her unique potential. Carter's beliefs reflect the _____ perspective of personality. trait social cognitive psychoanalytic * humanistic Janet believes that learning experiences play a critical role in the development of personality, especially in the development of a person's goals and beliefs about one's abilities. Janet's beliefs reflect the _____ perspective of personality. psychoanalytic trait * social cognitive humanistic Early in his medical career, Freud investigated the anesthetic properties of _____. * cocaine nitrous oxide ether morphine Which of the following people trained Freud in the use of hypnosis to treat patients with psychological problems? Alfred Adler * Joseph Breuer Albert Bandura Carl Jung The publication of the book entitled _____ in 1895 is regarded as the formal beginning of psychoanalysis. "The Interpretation of Dreams" "Civilization and Its Discontents" * "Studies in Hysteria" "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life" Freud's famous technique of free association involved: * patients spontaneously reporting mental images, thoughts, and feelings as they came to mind. patients saying the first word that came to mind in response to another word. patients making up a story about an ambiguous picture. patients reporting what they "saw" in an inkblot. Very late in his life, Freud left Vienna and moved to England because: he was awarded a teaching position at Oxford University. he wanted to return to the place where he was born. he was bankrupt. * his life was threatened by the Nazis. Even though Mary was not thinking about the events surrounding the day when she graduated from high school, she can easily bring memories about that day to conscious awareness. In terms of Freud's theory of personality, Mary's memories are stored at the _____ level of awareness. * preconscious unconscious conscious latent Which of the following is NOT one of the three levels of awareness in Freud's theory? the preconscious * the collective unconscious the conscious the unconscious According to Freud, what was "the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activity" of the mind? memories of childhood information revealed through hypnosis feelings of anger toward one's parents * the interpretation of dreams Angela remembers a dream in which she boarded a train that entered a dark tunnel. According to Sigmund Freud's theory, the dream images that Angela remembers, such as the train and the tunnel, are called the _____ content. * manifest repressed latent instinctual Angela is sitting in Sigmund Freud's office and tells him that she remembers a dream in which she boarded a train that entered a dark tunnel. After some discussion, Freud suggests to Angela that the train probably symbolized a man's penis and the action of entering the dark tunnel probably symbolized sexual intercourse. According to Freud, the symbolic, or hidden, meaning of the dream images is called the _____ content. lucid manifest * latent primal In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the disguised, symbolic meaning of dreams is called the: manifest content. primal content. * latent content. lucid content. In Freud's theory, which component of personality is present at birth and completely unconscious? the superego the ego the archetype * the id Which definition reflects Freud's view of the id? * the irrational component of personality that seeks immediate gratification the rational, organized component of personality that is sensitive to the demands of the external world the moralistic component of personality that evaluates the acceptability of behavior and thoughts the inherited mental images of universal human themes and preoccupations The prologue to Chapter 11 described the story of the twins, Julian and Kenneth. Using Freud's terminology, which component of personality was dominating Julian's behavior when he tried to rob the drugstore? the ego * the id the superego Eros Irrational and chaotic is to the _____ as rational and reality-oriented is to the _____. * id; ego id; superego ego; superego superego; id According to Freud, the ego is guided by the _____, whereas the id is guided by the _____. manifest content; latent content latency stage; genital stage * reality principle; pleasure principle pleasure principle; archetypes Which definition reflects Freud's view of the ego? the moralistic component of personality that evaluates the acceptability of behavior and thoughts the irrational component of personality that seeks immediate gratification the inherited mental images of universal human themes and preoccupations * the rational, organized component of personality that is sensitive to the demands of the external world Freud used the term _____ to refer to sexual energy or motivation. Thanatos * libido latent content reaction formation Eric was once seriously injured in a hang-gliding accident, yet he continues to engage in this dangerous activity. Freud would probably explain Eric's dangerous hobby as a reflection of: * Thanatos. Eros. sublimation. displacement. According to Freud, _____ is reflected in behaviors that enhance our chances of survival, and _____ is reflected in aggressive, reckless, and dangerous behaviors that are life threatening. rationalization; repression * Eros; Thanatos the id; the ego Thanatos; libido According to Freud, the basic goals of the id are to: punish the self by inflicting feelings of guilt and inferiority. delay gratification until a socially acceptable time. * seek pleasure and avoid pain. channel sexual and aggressive urges in socially acceptable ways. In Freud's theory of personality, the _____ operates on the _____, which is the capacity to delay gratification until an appropriate time. id; pleasure principle superego; reality principle * ego; reality principle superego; moral principle At day care, 3-year-old Shanna has learned that she has to wait her turn to ride on the tricycle rather than push another child off the tricycle. Using Freud's terminology, Shanna's ability to postpone gratification in a socially acceptable way is a reflection of her _____. id * ego superego pleasure principle When 7-year-old Philip was caught pocketing a candy bar that he had not paid for, he felt ashamed and guilty. Using Freud's terminology, the sense of shame and guilt that Philip felt was a product of his _____. id ego * superego pleasure principle Your sense of conscience corresponds to which component of personality in Freud's theory? Thanatos id ego * superego Which of the following statements reflects Freud's view of the superego? * It is the moralistic and self-evaluative component of personality. It is "a cauldron of seething excitement" that wants immediate gratification of instinctual drives and urges. It is the component of personality that operates on the reality principle. It is the source of the life instinct and death instinct. Ego defense mechanisms: increase anxiety. operate consciously. * distort thoughts or perceptions of reality. operate on the principle of unconditional positive regard. When Carol was 8 years old, her mother died. As an adult, Carol has no memories of attending her mother's funeral. Which ego defense mechanism best accounts for the fact that Carol has no memories of this upsetting event? undoing projection displacement * repression Freud believed that a special form of displacement, called _____, is largely responsible for the productive and creative contributions of people and even whole societies. regression projection * sublimation reaction formation Although he stayed calm during the conversation, Mark was angry as he left Professor McArthur's office because he felt he had been treated unfairly. A short while later, Mark snapped at a fellow student who asked if she could borrow his notes. Which ego defense mechanism best accounts for Mark's behavior toward the other student? * displacement sublimation denial rationalization While talking to another coworker, Doug makes many hateful comments about Brian behind his back. Later that morning when he sees Brian, Doug acts very friendly to Brian and offers to buy him lunch. Which ego defense mechanism best explains Doug's behavior? sublimation * undoing repression projection After Jack's loan application for the new car was rejected, he told a friend that he was glad he had not gotten the loan because his old car was still very reliable and he really didn't want to make monthly car payments. Which ego defense mechanism best explains Jack's behavior? repression undoing * rationalization reaction formation Although Karen's divorce was finalized several months ago, she still refers to Jonathan as her "husband" rather than her "ex-husband" when talking with friends. Which ego defense mechanism best explains Karen's behavior? displacement undoing rationalization * denial Troy and Carrie are a couple. Although Troy is not able to consciously admit he has strong feelings of sexual attraction to other women, he suspects and accuses Carrie of being sexually attracted to other men, even though Carrie has never done anything to arouse such suspicions. Which ego defense mechanism best explains Troy's behavior? displacement * projection sublimation undoing _____ is a form of _____ in which sexual urges are channeled into productive, socially acceptable, nonsexual activities. * Sublimation; displacement Undoing; repression Reaction formation; rationalization Repression; denial Reaction formation is an ego defense mechanism that involves: attributing one's own unacceptable urges to others. channeling sexual urges into productive, nonsexual activities. * behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses. atoning for an unacceptable thought or action with a second action or thought. Unconscious repentance is to the ego defense mechanism of _____ as going to the opposite extreme is to the ego defense mechanism of _____. displacement; sublimation rationalization; repression * undoing; reaction formation denial; projection Because the beginnings of his own sexual attraction to some of the girls in his seventh-grade class were so anxiety-provoking to Jeff, he often found himself teasing the girls to whom he was most attracted. Jeff's behavior is best explained by which of the following ego defense mechanisms? rationalization displacement * reaction formation undoing After Patty broke up with him, Evan told his friends how happy he was that Patty was out of his life. Nevertheless, Evan keeps thinking of things that he left at Patty's apartment and calls her or stops by her apartment several times a week. Each time he sees her, he acts hateful toward Patty and tells her that he hopes he never sees her again. Evan's behavior is best explained by which of the following ego defense mechanisms? * reaction formation identification displacement undoing Which of the following statements about ego defense mechanisms is FALSE? According to Freud, the use of ego defense mechanisms requires the continuous expenditure of psychological energy. Psychologically healthy people often use ego defense mechanisms to temporarily deal with stressful events. The most basic ego defense mechanism is repression, which occurs to some degree in every ego defense mechanism. * With the exception of sublimation, all of the ego defense mechanisms increase feelings of anxiety. Which of the following represents the correct order of Freud's psychosexual stages of development? * oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital oral, anal, genital, latency, phallic anal, oral, latency, phallic, genital oral, genital, anal, latency, phallic In Freud's theory, if a parent overindulges or frustrates the child's expression of pleasurable feelings at a particular psychosexual stage of development: the ego may not develop. * the child may experience fixation and continue to seek pleasure through behaviors associated with the particular psychosexual stage. the parent will experience the psychological wrath of the superego, which will promote strong feelings of guilt and inferiority. the child will experience reaction formation and behave in a way that is directly opposite to the frustrated desires. Because her baby seemed to enjoy putting so many things in his mouth, Jessica provided the infant with many different kinds of pacifiers and chewable toys. According to Freud's theory, Jessica is running the risk of producing _____ at the _____ psychosexual stage of development. identification; phallic the Oedipus complex; genital * fixation; oral projection; anal Gordon's 5-year-old son has recently become very possessive of his mother, pushing Gordon away whenever he tries to hug his wife. Freud would probably suggest that the little boy's behaviors reflect: fixation at the oral stage of psychosexual development. the latency stage of psychosexual development. * the Oedipus complex. his attainment of the genital stage of psychosexual development. According to Freud's theory, the Oedipus complex: occurs during the oral stage of psychosexual development. * is the child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent. first appears during the adolescent years, when sexual urges begin to surface. is resolved through the defense mechanism of sublimation. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex produces _____ in little boys and _____ in little girls. identification; sublimation latency; fixation the inferiority complex; the superiority complex * castration anxiety; penis envy Five-year-old Cara has recently begun imitating her mother's actions and mannerisms. Freud would probably say that Cara's identification with her mother is the child's way of resolving the anxiety caused by: fixation at the oral stage. the genital stage of psychosexual development. * the Oedipus complex. Thanatos. According to Freud, the successful resolution of the phallic stage of psychosexual development involves the child's use of the defense mechanism of _____. * identification. fixation. displacement. undoing. Eight-year-old Alex plays almost exclusively with the other boys at his grade school. Alex's behavior suggests that he is in the _____ stage of psychosexual development. phallic genital * latency oral According to Freud, the sexual urges of children during the latency stage of psychosexual development: are directed toward playmates of the opposite sex. intensify and cause great anxiety. * become repressed, and the child prefers to play with same-sex friends. produce catharsis. According to Freud, during the genital stage of psychosexual development: sexual urges are repressed. * incestuous sexual urges toward the opposite-sex parent resurface. identification with same-sex peers occurs. oral fixation occurs. In Freud's view, the final attainment of a psychologically healthy personality and sense of sexuality occurs when the individual: achieves the goal of the Oedipus complex. achieves fixation. * directs sexual urges toward socially acceptable substitutes of the opposite-sex parent. represses all sexual urges. The neo-Freudians did NOT reject Freud's notion that: sexual urges are the primary motivator of behavior. early childhood experiences are the sole determinant of personality. basic human nature is aggressive and destructive. * unconscious mental processes influence behavior. Which of the following theorists is NOT a neo-Freudian? * Carl Rogers Alfred Adler Karen Horney Carl Jung The collective unconscious is to _____ as the inferiority complex is to _____. Carl Rogers; Karen Horney * Carl Jung; Alfred Adler Alfred Adler; Sigmund Freud Karen Horney; Carl Jung In contrast to Freud, Carl Jung believed that: there were eight stages of psychosexual development. people are driven to overcome feelings of inferiority. men often suffer from womb envy. * personality continues to develop throughout the lifespan. Calling him his "crown prince" and "adopted son," which of the neo-Freudians did Sigmund Freud choose to succeed him in leading the international psychoanalytic movement? Erik Erikson Alfred Adler Abraham Maslow * Carl Jung It was _____ who said, "The whole spiritual heritage of mankind's evolution is born anew in the brain structure of every individual." Alfred Adler * Carl Jung Karen Horney Robert Plomin According to Carl Jung, the collective unconscious: occurs in close relationships and friendships. is responsible for the Oedipus complex. * is the part of the unconscious mind that is inherited from previous generations. is the source of sexual and aggressive instinctual drives. Which of the following statements best describes Jung's notion of archetypes? Each person is motivated to overcome the weaknesses in his or her particular archetype. * Each person inherits mental images that reflect universal human themes. Each person develops a strong sense of competence in a particular skill or area of knowledge, which becomes that person's archetype. A person's personality or archetype is shaped by his or her upbringing. Jung believed that feminine and masculine qualities are represented in which of the following pairs of archetypes? introvert and extravert matriarch and warrior * anima and animus water and fire Jung believed that the sense of self and psychic wholeness is universally symbolized by: clouds. water. the temple. * the mandala. Jung was the first to describe the basic characteristics of which of the following personality types? * the introvert versus the extravert the trusting versus the suspicious the neurotic versus the psychotic the self-assured versus the apprehensive In contrast to Freud, psychoanalyst Karen Horney emphasized the importance of _____ in personality development. sexual conflicts during the adolescent years * human relationships striving for superiority unconditional love and acceptance Psychoanalyst Karen Horney described _____ as "the feeling that a child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world." loneliness inferiority * basic anxiety abandonment fear In psychoanalyst Karen Horney's view, people who move "against" others have a strong need for: independence and self-sufficiency. approval and affection. creativity and spontaneity. * power and feelings of superiority. In contrast to Freud's view of psychosexual development, psychoanalyst Karen Horney contended that: females feel inferior because they lack a penis. girls do not experience the Oedipus complex until adolescence. girls resolve the Oedipus complex long before boys do. * males often envy the capacity of females to bear children. According to psychoanalyst Karen Horney, males often envy the capacity of women to bear children, which she termed _____. * womb envy penis shame reproductive inferiority genesis anxiety It was _____ who said, "My own belief is that man has the capacity as well as the desire to develop his potentialities and become a decent human being, and that these deteriorate if his relationship to others and hence to himself is, and continues to be, disturbed." Alfred Adler Carl Jung * Karen Horney Albert Bandura It was _____ who said, "One should be capable of giving in to others, of fighting, and of keeping to oneself. The three can complement each other and make for a harmonious whole." Alfred Adler Carl Jung * Karen Horney Albert Bandura In contrast to Freud's ideas, Alfred Adler believed that: the images and themes contained in the collective unconscious are transmitted from one generation to the next. * the most fundamental human motive was the desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection. there are eight stages of psychosocial development that occur throughout the lifespan. the Oedipus complex persists and resurfaces throughout life. According to Alfred Adler, feelings of _____ are universal. anxiety guilt * inferiority superiority The collective unconscious is to _____ as womb envy is to _____. Jung; Adler * Jung; Horney Erikson; Adler Adler; Horney Despite the fact that Isaac is actually incompetent at many of the tasks that his job entails, he is constantly bragging about his accomplishments, abilities, and skills. Alfred Adler would probably suggest that Isaac has developed _____ to cover up his weaknesses. an archetype sublimation * a superiority complex an inferiority complex Wendy often avoids trying or learning new tasks because she sees herself as inadequate, weak, and helpless. Alfred Adler would probably suggest that Wendy has developed _____ that keeps her from striving for mastery and self-improvement. an archetype sublimation a superiority complex * an inferiority complex According to Alfred Adler, feelings of inferiority: are more prominent in women than in men. are the most fundamental archetype of the collective unconscious. * motivate people to compensate for real or imagined weaknesses. are resolved during the latency stage of psychosexual development. The inferiority complex is to _____ as basic anxiety is to _____. * Adler; Horney Jung; Adler Erikson; Jung Adler; Jung It was _____ who said, "To be human means to have inferiority feelings. But in the mentally healthy person this inferiority feeling acts as a motive for productivity, as a motive for attempting to overcome obstacles, to maintain oneself in life." * Alfred Adler Carl Jung Karen Horney Albert Bandura Which of the following is NOT a valid criticism of Freud's theory of personality? Freud based his theory on self-analysis and a small number of patients. Many of Freud's psychoanalytic concepts are so vague that they are impossible to objectively measure or confirm. Freud did not keep detailed records of his therapy sessions with his patients, so it is impossible to objectively verify his observations. * Freud's lifelong addiction to cocaine and several other drugs distorted his thinking. Freud's personality theory was primarily based on case studies of: his family members. a large group of patients who were randomly chosen to be a representative sample of the Austrian population. * a small number of middle-class and upper-class patients, himself, and historical figures. himself, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler. Many psychoanalytic ideas are difficult to test because: * they cannot be operationally defined and objectively measured. ethical guidelines prohibit this kind of research. it is impossible to recruit naive research subjects who are unaware of Freud's ideas. Freud's original notes and experimental data were destroyed by the Nazis. Which of the following psychoanalytic ideas has NOT been supported by empirical research? the idea that much of mental life is unconscious * the idea that children predictably progress through the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital psychosexual stages the idea that early childhood experiences are important to adult relationships and personality development the idea that some people are better than others at controlling their impulses and directing their energies toward socially acceptable ends Freud's psychoanalytic theory has been criticized as sexist. Which of the following aspects of Freud's theory has NOT been criticized as being sexist? Freud's notion of penis envy Freud's view that men represent "normal" psychological development, whereas women are a deviation from the male norm * the active involvement of women in the early psychoanalytic movement Freud's belief that women were more emotional and less ethical than men Which of the following is referred to as the "third force" in psychology? * humanistic psychology the social cognitive perspective on personality the famous psychoanalyst named Karen Horney behavioral genetics Humanistic psychology is a view of personality that emphasizes: reciprocal determinism. * the study of psychologically healthy people. the importance of genetic factors in personality. unconscious determinants of personality and behavior. Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow contended that: the only way to understand the development of a psychologically healthy personality was to study people with severe psychological problems. genetic factors are much more important than situational factors in personality development. * human motives are arranged in a hierarchy. all people eventually achieve self-actualization. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of self-actualized people? They perceive themselves, others, and external reality realistically. * They tend to be dependent on others and have a strong social need to be surrounded by other people. They tend to be spontaneous, natural, and open in their behavior and thoughts. They tend to be creative. Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers contended that the most basic human motive is: aggression. conditional positive regard. * the actualizing tendency. striving for superiority over others. Logan and Paula were debating what would happen to society if the government collapsed and the military and police were disbanded. Logan was convinced that society would collapse and that chaos would occur, as there would be nothing to hold back the destructive, hostile tendencies of people. Logan's views are most similar to those of: * Sigmund Freud. Carl Rogers. Alfred Adler. Albert Bandura. Ethan and Holly were debating what would happen to society if the government collapsed and the military and police were disbanded. Holly felt strongly that although things would probably be chaotic at first, people would very naturally strive to help each other in constructive ways. Holly's views are most similar to those of: Sigmund Freud. * Carl Rogers. Alfred Adler. Carl Jung. It was _____ who said, "Man is a wolf to man." Carl Jung Karen Horney Alfred Adler * Sigmund Freud It was _____ who said, "I dare to believe that when the human being is inwardly free to choose whatever he deeply values, he tends to value those objects, experiences, and goals that will make for his own survival, growth, and development, and for the survival and development of others." Carl Jung * Carl Rogers Sigmund Freud Alfred Adler According to Carl Rogers's theory of personality, a person is highly motivated to act in a way that is consistent with: his or her sense of self-efficacy in a particular situation. the behavior of others. his or her source traits. * his or her self-concept. Spencer has always considered himself to be an honest person. So when he walked into the empty classroom and found a wallet that contained a hundred dollars in cash, he took it to the campus security office. According to Carl Rogers's theory of personality, Spencer's behavior when he found the purse was motivated by: the unconscious fear of getting caught. * his desire to act in a way that was consistent with his self-concept. the sense of guilt he would feel if he kept the money. the "imaginary audience" or his belief that someone might observe his behavior. According to Carl Rogers, when a child senses that he is loved and valued only when he behaves in a way that is acceptable to his parents, the parents are displaying _____ toward the child. congruence self-efficacy * conditional positive regard unconditional positive regard Five-year-old Sam begins to cry when he discovers that his pet turtle has died. His father punishes Sam for crying and says, "Big boys don't cry." According to Carl Rogers, because Sam's father is using _____, Sam is likely to _____ his feelings of sadness in the future. punishment; exaggerate ego defense mechanisms; rationalize unconditional positive regard; accept * conditional positive regard; deny Four-year-old Brooke throws a tantrum when her parents want to leave the playground. Instead of punishing her, Brooke's parents patiently and lovingly try to teach Brooke a more acceptable way of coping with disappointment and frustration. Using Carl Rogers's terminology, Brooke is experiencing a high degree of _____ from her parents. conditional positive regard reciprocal determinism * unconditional positive regard self-efficacy Which of the following statements about Carl Rogers's theory of personality is FALSE? * Rogers strongly advocated permissive parenting to help create psychologically healthy children. Rogers believed that psychological problems can occur when people are in a state of incongruence and out of touch with their true feelings. Rogers believed that basic human nature is positive, constructive, realistic, and trustworthy. Rogers advocated the use of unconditional positive regard to promote the development of a psychologically healthy personality. Carl Rogers's theory of personality and humanistic psychology has been criticized for: * being naively optimistic about human nature. being based solely on experimental evidence. having no practical application. overemphasizing the role of genetics in personality development. Humanistic theories of personality have helped promote the scientific study of: unconscious influences on personality, emotions, and psychological conflicts. human aggression. * the healthy personality and creativity. the role of genetics in personality. The _____ perspective on personality emphasizes conscious thought processes, self-regulation, and the importance of situational influences. humanistic psychoanalytic trait * social cognitive Kaitlin is a personality theorist who believes that a person's conscious thoughts in a particular situation are likely to influence his or her goals and behavior. Kaitlin is most likely to agree with which of the following perspectives on personality? * the social cognitive perspective the humanistic perspective the trait perspective the psychoanalytic perspective In what way is the social cognitive perspective on personality similar to the humanistic perspective on personality? Both perspectives stress unconscious influences. * Both perspectives stress the importance of conscious thoughts about the self. Both perspectives stress the importance of genetic influences. Both perspectives stress case studies and insights derived from individual psychotherapy. According to reciprocal determinism: * human behavior and personality are caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors. unconscious and conscious forces operate together to determine the nature of personality. self-efficacy interacts with the environment to determine one's reactions to events in one's life. human behavior is determined by the unconscious personality dynamics that give rise to self-efficacy. Rhonda feels confident in her ability to dance the part of Clara in The Nutcracker ballet. Albert Bandura would say that Rhonda is showing good: reciprocal determinism. unconditional positive regard. * self-efficacy. sublimation. _____ emphasized the interaction among behavior, conscious cognitive processes, and social experiences in his personality theory called _____. * Albert Bandura; social cognitive theory Carl Rogers; humanistic psychology Sigmund Freud; psychoanalysis Raymond Cattell; the five-factor model Your subjective belief about your ability to meet the demands of a particular situation is called: a defense mechanism. * self-efficacy. the self-concept. Factor 5, Conscientiousness. According to Bandura's theory, which of the following factors does NOT contribute to the self-regulation of behavior? learning how to evaluate one's own performance acquiring standards of performance through observational learning * the strength of the person's superego internalizing standards of behavior that are modeled by parents and others Gillian's club is planning a 10K race as a fund-raiser. Because Gillian had never run in a race before, she was certain that she would not be able to complete the 10K and instead volunteered to screen and register the runners. How might the social cognitive theory be used to explain Gillian's behavior? Gillian is low on Factor 5, Persistence. The absence of unconditional positive regard in Gillian's childhood has left her full of self-doubt and anxiety. * Gillian has a strong sense of self-efficacy when it comes to talking to people and writing down information, but she has a weak sense of self-efficacy when it comes to running in a race. Gillian suffers from unresolved, unconscious conflicts regarding her femininity and repressed competitive urges. According to social cognitive theory, the self-system is: * flexible. unchanging. composed of the id, ego, and superego. congruent. Social cognitive theorists tend to believe that people are: innately good, but can be warped by an unhealthy upbringing. innately destructive, but can be raised to conform to societal rules. controlled solely by external, environmental events. * largely responsible for directing and controlling their own behavior. Identify the correct way in which the social cognitive perspective on personality differs from both the psychoanalytic and the humanistic perspectives. The social cognitive perspective stresses the importance of unconscious influences. The social cognitive perspective stresses the importance of individual differences. The social cognitive perspective emphasizes insights derived from case studies. * The social cognitive perspective emphasizes information derived from empirical research and experimental data. Which of the following represents a key STRENGTH of the social cognitive perspective? The social cognitive perspective provides a good explanation of irrational human behavior. The social cognitive perspective has provided a way to test empirically psychoanalytic concepts, such as the Oedipus complex and superego. * Social cognitive concepts, such as self-efficacy, can be operationally defined and empirically tested. The social cognitive perspective has had a major impact on areas outside of personality theory and psychology, such as art, literature, and philosophy. Which of the following represents a key WEAKNESS of the social cognitive perspective? The social cognitive perspective has no empirical support. * The social cognitive perspective focuses only on limited aspects of human personality. The social cognitive perspective is based upon clinical observations of a very small group of people, most of whom were being treated for psychological problems. Social cognitive concepts have little or no applicability to daily life. How would Albert Bandura explain war and cruelty? * "Massive threats to human welfare are generally brought about by deliberate acts of principle, rather than unrestrained acts of impulse." "It is the failure of the rational ego, the superego's restraints, and societal's laws to control the id's destructive impulses that has led to the ruination of humankind as we know it." "When one's own sense of unconditional positive regard is undermined by environmental influences, man suffers at man's own hands." "One's self-efficacy is effectively negated by the whims of an unrestrained id, and this will contribute to humankind's demise." Albert Bandura disagreed with Freud's belief that human aggression and destructiveness are due to: deliberate, conscious choices. rationalization, sublimation, and projection. * the failure of the ego, superego, and societal laws to control the aggressive impulses of the id. conditional positive regard. Which approach to personality focuses primarily on describing individual differences? * the trait perspective the psychoanalytic perspective the humanistic perspective the social cognitive perspective When David is asked to describe his best friend Josh, he responds: "Josh is very friendly, pretty intelligent, and a really nice guy. He seems laid-back, but he actually works hard at keeping up with his college classes. He's a lot of fun because he's always ready to try something new." David's description of his friend's personality would be most consistent with which of the following approaches to personality? psychoanalytic social cognitive humanistic * trait A focus on similarities among people is to the _____ perspective as a focus on differences among people is to the _____ perspective. trait; social cognitive psychoanalytic; humanistic * psychoanalytic; trait social cognitive; humanistic Dr. Barkulis is a trait theorist. He would be most likely to describe an individual in terms of her: unconscious conflicts and repressed wishes. * unique combination of characteristics or attributes. self-concept. level of self-efficacy. A trait is formally defined as: a set of beliefs that are held about the self. an unconscious motive or drive. a specific defense mechanism that produces a particular pattern of behavior. * a relatively stable, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way. Dr. O'Higgins believes that the study of personality should focus on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences. Dr. O'Higgins probably would identify with the _____ perspective on personality. psychoanalytic * trait humanistic social cognitive Traits that are easy to infer from observable behaviors are called _____ traits. * surface source conscious congruent Trait theorists have analyzed and grouped large numbers of _____ traits in order to identify a smaller number of _____. surface traits; universal psychological needs source traits; traits that most people share * surface traits; source traits source traits; surface traits "Punctual, thorough, and dependable" are to "conscientious" as _____ is to _____. introversion; extroversion * surface trait; source trait Freud; Maslow psychoanalytic; social cognitive Trait theorists tend to believe that: behavior is determined more by situational influences than by innate personal characteristics. there are thousands of source traits, but only a few important surface traits. because personality is so complex, no single set of personality dimensions can possibly describe the nature of a unique individual. * there are a small number of source traits that represent a universal way of describing individual personality differences. Cattell used a statistical technique called _____ to sort through a large number of personality traits and identify those that represented the most basic dimensions of personality. * factor analysis archetyping the MMPI technique meta-analysis Identify the trait theorist who believed that personality could be described in terms of sixteen personality dimensions. Hans Eysenck Albert Bandura * Raymond Cattell Robert McCrae According to Raymond Cattell, the most basic dimensions of personality can be described in terms of _____ factors. three * sixteen five twenty According to Hans Eysenck, personality can be best described in terms of which basic trait dimensions? * introversion/extroversion; stability/neuroticism; and psychoticism. introverted/neurotic; extraverted/neurotic; extraverted/stable; and introverted/stable. neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. extroversion and psychoticism. According to Eysenck's theory, the four basic personality types are: Psychotic-Extraverted; Psychotic-Introverted; Psychotic-Stable; and Psychotic-Unstable. * Extraverted-Neurotic; Extraverted-Stable; Introverted-Neurotic; and Introverted-Stable. Agreeable-Emotional; Disagreeable-Stable; Cheerful-Peaceful; and Gloomy-Restless. Average; Reserved; Outgoing; Psychotic. According to Eysenck's theory, _____ tend to seek out stimulating environments, whereas _____ tend to avoid stimulating environments. neurotics; psychotics psychotics; neurotics * extraverts; introverts introverts; extraverts Margaret has been classified as high in extroversion. According to Eysenck's theory, she is most likely to seek out a(n) _____ environment in order to _____. * stimulating; raise her level of biological arousal unstimulating; lower her level of biological arousal stimulating; lower her level of biological arousal unstimulating; compensate for her outgoing personality style John has been classified as high in introversion. Eysenck would predict that: his nervous system is not as easily aroused as is an extravert's nervous system. he would prefer a quiet environment, because he would tend to react to new stimuli less intensely than an extravert would. he would seek out and thrive in a highly stimulating environment. * he would seek out and thrive in an environment that offered a relatively low level of stimulation. The most widely accepted trait theory today is called: the 16 PF. * the five-factor model of personality. the reciprocal determinism model of personality. the interaction model. According to the _____ model of personality, personality can be defined in terms of five basic dimensions. psychoanalytic social cognitive * five-factor behavioral genetic The "Big Five" are: Freud, Rogers, Maslow, Bandura, and Eysenck. Introversion, Extraversion, Neuroticism, Stability, and Psychoticism. * Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. The Rorschach, TAT, MMPI, CPI, and 16 PF. Cross-cultural research on traits has found that: * people in a variety of cultures describe personality in terms of the same basic traits that are identified by the five-factor model. every culture has its own unique way of describing the basic structure of personality. collectivistic cultures describe the structure of personality in a very different way than individualistic cultures. Asian societies tend to describe personality in terms of self-orientation and other-orientation, rather than in terms of individual characteristics. At 25, James is a very calm, even-tempered person who enjoys socializing with others and likes a lot of variety in his life. Psychological research would predict that at age 45, James would: probably experience a midlife crisis, which could change his personality traits in unexpected ways. become much more introverted and prefer a quieter lifestyle, a tendency that would increase throughout middle and late adulthood. display traits that were exactly the opposite to those traits he displayed at age 25. * display personality traits that were very similar to his personality traits at age 25. The contention that behavior is influenced more by particular situations than by internal traits was triggered by research that showed that: people changed markedly throughout the lifespan. * personality traits did not reliably predict behavior in a particular situation. people often lie on personality questionnaires, and their personalities are less consistent than the questionnaires seemed to show. personality is much more complex than can be described by five trait dimensions. In the trait versus situation debate, trait theorists argued that: studies showing that external situations influenced behavior were flawed. personality traits are likely to predict behavior in highly structured situations that involve many social rules, rather than in informal situations. situational influences are also poor predictors of people's behavior on a particular occasion. * personality traits may not reliably predict behavior on a specific occasion, but they do reliably predict behavior across many situations. Which of the following statements best represents contemporary thinking on the relative influence of situations and traits on behavior? External situations have much more influence over human behavior than do internal personality traits. The trait versus situation debate is irrelevant because contemporary research has shown that a person's genetic makeup is the sole determinant of behavior. * Human behavior is always the result of the complex interaction between traits and situations, but personality traits are basically consistent across a wide range of situations. The debate rages on and will probably never be resolved. The field of behavioral genetics studies the: behaviors that are determined solely by genes. * effects of genes and heredity on behavior. effects of behavior on genes and heredity. effects of hormones on genes and behavior. Professor Lannigan specializes in human behavioral genetics. Which of the following research methods is she NOT likely to use in her research? studying identical twins who have been raised apart comparing adopted individuals to their adoptive families and their biological families measuring similarities and differences among people who are genetically related in differing degrees * using genetic engineering to alter a particular gene and then observe the effects on a person's personality traits or behavior. One explanation discussed in the text for the similarities between adult identical twins who were separated at birth and raised in separate homes is that: * two unrelated people of exactly the same age and sex would also have many traits and preferences in common. similarities are due to their having identical astrological profiles, despite being raised in different homes. every aspect of personality, including individual preferences, is determined by genes. without the researchers' knowledge, the twin pairs compared notes before being interviewed. An emergenic trait is defined as a trait that: is completely due to environmental influences. is common to all members of a particular racial group. * is the result of a unique configuration of many interacting genes. cannot be measured by any known personality tests. The term heritability estimate refers to: the number of personality traits that have been shown to be due to heredity or genetics. an estimate of the number of specific genes that determine a particular personality trait. * an estimate of the degree to which differences within a given population are influenced by genetics. an estimate of the proportion of a particular person's personality that is determined solely by genetics. Pick the answer that explains why the following statement is incorrect: "Assuming that extraversion has a heritability estimate of about 50 percent, half of Bonnie's trait of extraversion is due to her genetics, and half to her environment." There is no evidence that personality characteristics are influenced by genetics. Heritability estimates can only be used to describe the genetics of physical characteristics, not personality traits. Heritability estimates apply only to animals, not humans. * Heritability estimates can only be used to describe the differences among a specific group of people; they do not explain the characteristics of a particular individual. Polly and Marlene are identical twins who were separated at birth and raised in different families. In a twin study, similarities in their personality traits would be judged to be due to _____, and differences in their personality traits would be considered to be due to _____. * genetic influences; environmental influences environmental influences; genetic influences coincidence; genetic influences heritability; heredity Paul was adopted at birth. In a behavioral genetics study, similarities between Paul and his adoptive parents are considered to be due to _____, and similarities between Paul and his biological parents are considered to be due to _____. genetic influences; environmental influences * environmental influences; genetic influences coincidence; environmental influences heritability; environmental influences Assume that "friendliness" is a genetically influenced trait. Which of the following groups would you expect to be MOST similar on the trait of friendliness? fraternal twins biological siblings parents and their firstborn child * identical twins The data that provide evidence for the genetic influence on personality traits: * also provide evidence for the importance of environmental influences. demonstrate that personality traits are almost entirely due to genetics, and environmental influences have no effect on personality. demonstrate that some traits are wholly due to genetics, and other traits are wholly due to environmental influences. demonstrate that Freud's theory of personality has no validity. One reason why siblings who grow up in the same home are so different is that: siblings only share about 10 percent of the same genes. although siblings experience identical environmental influences, genetic influences on personality are more important than environmental influences. * although they grow up in the same home, siblings do not share the same experiences and environmental influences. parental treatment has no effect on personality characteristics. Jeremy is Ellen's older brother. Jeremy is much more assertive and has greater self-confidence than does Ellen. Which of the following factors could NOT be used to help explain the difference in their personalities? Males and females are often treated differently both inside and outside the home. Ellen's relationship with her older brother may have affected her personality development. Their parents may have treated them differently. * Siblings generally have no more than 10 percent of their genes in common, so it is not surprising that their personalities are so different. Which of the following is NOT an important weakness of the trait approach to personality? * Trait theories have no empirical research support. Trait theories don't really explain how individual differences develop. Trait theories label and describe individual differences, but they do not explain personality. Trait theories only deal with one aspect of personality and do not address other issues, such as motivation, growth and development, or the role of the unconscious. Dr. Stack is a psychologist who is conducting research in the area of personality traits. Which of the following topics is she MOST likely to investigate? increasing feelings of self-efficacy among first-year college students * personality differences among family members unconscious influences on personality and behavior the effects of unconditional positive regard in early childhood Sigmund Freud is to _____ as Carl Rogers is to _____. Raymond Cattell; Albert Bandura psychoanalytic; social cognitive * psychoanalytic; humanistic social cognitive; psychoanalytic _____ is to trait theory as _____ is to social cognitive theory. Sigmund Freud; Raymond Cattell Karen Horney; Albert Bandura Albert Bandura; Carl Rogers * Raymond Cattell; Albert Bandura Which of the following personality theorists emphasized conscious thoughts and experience? Sigmund Freud and Karen Horney Alfred Adler and Carl Jung Carl Jung and Karen Horney * Carl Rogers and Albert Bandura Which of the following personality theorists emphasized unconscious motives? Carl Rogers and Albert Bandura Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell * Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung Hans Eysenck and Abraham Maslow The two basic types of personality tests are: aptitude and achievement tests. trait and intelligence tests. normal and abnormal functioning tests. * projective tests and self-report inventories. Astrology was originally based upon: the idea that gene expression was influenced by magnetic and gravitational fields. * the assumption that the stars, sun, and planets revolved around the earth. the realization that birth rates vary from one season to another. empirical data that showed that people born in different months had particular personality characteristics. What was found in the study by Carlson described in the "Science Versus Pseudoscience" box on astrology? Astrologers were about 90 percent accurate in their forecasts. Astrologers were able to correctly match astrological profiles with CPI profiles at a highly significant rate. * Astrologers were unable to correctly match astrological profiles with CPI profiles at a rate any higher than chance. Using CPI profiles, the astrologers could correctly predict the month in which a person was born. The type of personality test that involves a person's interpreting an ambiguous image and is used to assess unconscious motives and conflicts is called a(n): * projective test. self-report inventory. aptitude test. achievement test. Serena's psychologist asked her to look carefully at several images and say what she sees in the images. Serena's psychologist is using what kind of personality test? the California Personality Inventory * a projective test the 16 PF a self-report inventory Dr. Romero asked her patient, Glen, to study a brightly colored image made by an inkblot on a card. She asked Glen to tell her what he "saw" in the image and took careful notes of his descriptions. What test is Dr. Romero using? Thematic Apperception Test Thematic Inkblot Test * Rorschach Inkblot Test Minnesota Multiphasic Test Dr. Duran showed his patient Adam a series of cards, each of which depicted an ambiguous scene, such as two people talking on a park bench, or an older woman looking over a young woman's shoulder. Dr. Duran asked Adam to tell him a story about the picture. What test is Dr. Duran using? * Thematic Apperception Test Thematic Inkblot Test Rorschach Inkblot Test Minnesota Multiphasic Test Two of the most widely used projective tests are the: CPI and MMPI. * Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test. 16 PF and the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Minnesota Multiphasic Test and the Rorschach Inkblot Test. The main strength of projective tests is that: the tests are valid, meaning they measure what they are supposed to measure. different examiners are likely to find very similar results if they give the test to the same individual. the scoring of projective tests is extremely objective. * they provide a great deal of qualitative information about an individual, which may be helpful in psychotherapy. Regarding projective tests, which of the following statements is FALSE? The scoring of projective tests is very subjective. Projective tests often produce inconsistent results. * Projective tests are extremely accurate in predicting future behavior. When they administer a projective test, different examiners may arrive at different conclusions about the same individual. The type of personality test that involves people's responding to specific questions and comparing the responses to established norms collected on large groups of people is called a(n): projective test. * self-report inventory. aptitude test. IQ test. The most widely used self-report inventory is called the: Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT. Rorschach Inkblot Test. Children's Apperception Test, or CAT. * Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, or MMPI. Dr. Kildare gave his patient a lengthy test that involved more than 500 questions. The patient was instructed to respond to each statement with either "True," "False," or "Cannot say." Dr. Kildare told his patient that the test would be scored by computer, but that he would analyze the results and discuss them with her. Most likely, Dr. Kildare's patient has taken which personality test? * the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, or MMPI the Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT the Rorschach Inkblot Test the Multiple Aptitude Test, or MAT Two self-report inventories that were designed to assess the personality characteristics of normal populations are: the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Multiple Aptitude Test (MAT). * the California Personality Inventory (CPI) and the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Rorschach Inkblot Test. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) and the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Identify the personality test that was originally developed by Raymond Cattell and that is based upon Cattell's trait theory. the CPI the TAT the MMPI * the 16 PF Dr. Klein frequently uses the _____ in his clinical practice to generate personality profiles on sixteen dimensions of personality, especially when he is counseling marital partners. CPI * 16 PF MMPI Rorschach Inkblot Test Which of the following is NOT a strength of the self-report inventories discussed in your textbook? Scoring is very objective and consistent from one examiner to another or from one time period to another. The MMPI, CPI, and 16 PF can be used to predict future behavior. * The MMPI, CPI, and 16 PF can be used to provide qualitative information about the individual's unconscious motives, conflicts, and feelings. Research studies have established that the MMPI, CPI, and 16 PF are all reliable and valid measures of personality. Which of the following is NOT a weakness of self-report inventories? People may misjudge their own attitudes and behaviors. People can sometimes successfully fake their responses or intentionally deceive the examiner. Since some inventories have hundreds of items, people may not answer every item carefully and accurately. * Scoring is very subjective and may vary from one examiner to another. Dr. Wilkerson has given her new patient several psychological tests. What approach should Dr. Wilkerson take in interpreting the test results? She should assume that the tests tell her everything she needs to know about her new patient. She should assume that the test results are likely to contradict her patient's self-concept. * She should combine her knowledge of the test results with behavioral observations and information from other sources, including the patient himself. She should assume that the Rorschach and TAT tests will provide the most reliable insights into her patient's personality traits. Graphology is: * a pseudoscience that claims handwriting can reveal personality traits, temperament, intelligence, occupational attributes, and reasoning ability. a projective personality test. the study of graphs to assess unconscious personality traits. a technique used by trait theorists to uncover unconscious motives. In a study that examined graphologists' abilities to distinguish among three groups of people, it was found that: graphologists predicted with nearly 100 percent accuracy. * graphologists performed only slightly better than untrained assessors and psychologists. the science of graphology was clearly superior in distinguishing among the groups. psychologists were better able to distinguish among the groups than either the graphologists or the untrained assessors. What conclusions were made in your text regarding graphology? Graphology is an accurate methodology for studying personality. Graphology should be used by more businesses because of its accuracy, reliability, and validity. Graphology is able to predict differences among groups of people almost 100 percent of the time. * Graphology is a pseudoscience. "Possible selves" refers to: ego defense mechanisms that involve fantasy. * aspects of the self-concept that reflect images that people hope, fear, or expect to become in the future. those aspects of the self-concept that are congruent with a person's emotions and experiences. the unconscious aspects of the self-concept that are repressed because they are felt to be unacceptable. Even before she enrolled in college, Diana's dream was to become a veterinarian. She is taking several college classes required to apply to a veterinary school. Diana's possible selves are likely to have a positive effect on: her collective unconscious. her psychosexual stage of personality development. the archetypes she creates for herself. * her level of motivation and beliefs of self-efficacy in college. Dylan wishes to apply the research on "possible selves" to help him become more motivated in college. As a first step, he should: go to the student counseling center and ask to take the 16 PF. create possible selves that are unrealistically optimistic to motivate himself to achieve the highest possible goals. * become consciously aware of the possible selves that he already holds and evaluate their effect on him. choose heroic figures from films and novels as models for his future possible selves. Most personality theories focus on very limited aspects of human behavior. True * False Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis, a personality theory that stressed the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and the importance of early childhood experiences. * True False Freud devised and popularized the Rorschach Inkblot test, a projective test that is still in wide use. True * False Early in his career, Freud collaborated with a physician named Joseph Breuer, who trained Freud in the use of hypnosis to treat people with psychological symptoms. * True False The 1895 publication of the book entitled Studies on Hysteria, which was written by Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, is the event that is considered the beginning of psychoanalysis. * True False Although he was invited to lecture in the United States, Sigmund Freud never visited the United States. True * False In Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, repressed feelings, wishes, and drives are contained in the preconscious. True * False Freud used the term Eros to refer to survival instincts such as sexuality and hunger, and the term Thanatos to refer to destructive and self-destructive instincts. * True False Although he was never able to scientifically verify his hypothesis, Freud believed the id to be a right-hemisphere brain structure, and the ego and superego to be left-hemisphere brain structures. True * False According to Freud, the newborn's personality is completely dominated by the ego. True * False If the ego is unable to identify a socially acceptable way to satisfy an instinctual urge, the urge may be repressed and become unconscious. * True False Anxiety is produced when demands from either the id or the superego threaten to overwhelm the ego. * True False The ego is ruled by the pleasure principle. True * False The reality principle is the capacity to postpone gratification until the appropriate time or circumstances exist in the external world. * True False The superego is the internal representation of parental and societal values. * True False Displacement is an ego defense mechanism that involves attributing your own unacceptable feelings or characteristics to another person. True * False Freud believed that the most basic ego defense mechanism was undoing. True * False Ego defense mechanisms are used only by people who are seriously troubled or psychologically disturbed and are always a sign that a serious mental disorder is present. True * False In Freud's theory, the correct order of the psychosexual stages is the oral, anal, genital, latency, and phallic stages. True * False For boys, resolving the Oedipus complex involves the development of the incest taboo and identification with the father. * True False According to Freud, identification occurs when a child imitates and internalizes the same-sex parent's values, attitudes, and mannerisms. * True False